Employment
(lakh mandays)
Year Allocation Utilisation Target Achievement
(Rs. Lakhs)
1989-90 2,63,066.60 2,45,853.76 8757.25 8643.87
1990-91 2,62,780.27 2,60,002.82 9291.04 8745.59
31
will be borne by the concerned cultivator/beneficiary. Again, a horticulture programme with the target of covering a total of 10 lakh ha. during the Eighth Plan has been launched at Government cost on lands of SC/STs/small farmers/NTS. On other lands, Government and the beneficiaries bear the expenditure on materials in the ratio 75:25.
2.8.2 The resources for the scheme are raised by the State Government by (i) levying a number of taxes/additional taxes/surcharges on profession, trade, motor vehicles, sales tax, irrigated agricultural land, land revenue and non-residential land and (ii) a contribution equal to the net collection of these levies made by the State Government.
2.8.3 The expenditure on the EGS has varied over the last six years from about Rs.288 crores in 1987-88 to an anticipated expenditure of Rs.200 crores in 1991-92 and employment generation from 18.95 crore mandays to an anticipated level of 7.50 crore mandays. Wages paid under the scheme are not lower than the minimum wages for unskilled agricultural labour.
2.8.4 The scheme has resulted in a significant reduction in the incidence of unemployment in rural areas. Average daily unemployment rates in rural Maharashtra have declined from 7.20% in 1977-78 to 3.17% in 1987-88. It would also have contributed to some extent towards the decline in rural poverty from 60.4 per cent in 1977-78 to 36.7 per cent in 1987.88. The scheme has also helped in keeping an upward pressure on wages in rural areas. The EGS has benefitted a large number of women too, with nearly 60 per cent of the workers on EGS sites being women.
2.8.5 In view of the significant positive impact of this scheme on employment, earnings and levels of living of rural people in Maharashtra, the experiment could well be a model for similar schemes in other States.
Special Employment Programme of Gujarat 2.9.1 A special employment programme was introduced in Gujarat in 1991 under which two districts, Dang and Gandhinagar, were selected for achievement of zero unemployment and, in the remaining districts, additional employment opportunities will be created in the rural areas. A plan is being worked out with the objective of providing self-employment to those below poverty line, as well as opportunities for wage employment for those who seek it.
Drought Prone Area Programme 2.10.1 The DPAP was launched in 1973 in and and semi-arid areas with poor natural resource endowments. The objective was to promote more productive dryland agriculture by better soil and moisture conservation, more scientific use of water resources, afforestation, and livestock development through development of fodder and pasture resource, and in the long run to restore the ecological balance. The DPAP covers 615 blocks of 91 districts in 13 states.
2.10.2 Given the objectives of the programmes, the sectoral earmarking of funds are as follows:
Sector % allocation
1. Land shaping and soil conservation 30
2. Afforestation and pasture 25
development
3. Water resource development 20
4. Other activities 15
5. Project administration 10
2.10.3 Under DPAP, funds are allocated on the basis of the number of blocks covered under the programme in each district at the rate of Rs. 15 lakhs per block, having a geographical area upto 500 sq. kms., Rs. 16.5 lakhs per block with an area between 500-1000 sq. kms., and Rs. 18.5 lakhs for blocks with an area exceeding 1000 sq. kms. The allocations are shared between the Centre and the States on a 50:50 basis. The financial and physical achievements under the programme are given below.
32
DPAP Achievements
Seventh 1990-91
Plan
Allocation (Rs. 46276.0 10223.0
lakhs)
Expenditure (Rs. 46185.91 9389.1
lakhs)
Physical Achievements in
Key Sectors (00 hectares)
Land Development 4774.8 1430.3
Water Resources 2095.8 215.2
Forestry 3741.66 800.0
2.10.4 The Programme Evaluation Organisation of the Planning Commission has been entrusted with the task of evaluating the DPAP. These programmes have been running for many years and there is no evidence that drought proofing has been achieved in any of the DPAP blocks. Yet there are cases where voluntary effort has succeeded in achieving this objective at a micro-level. A more concerted and coor- dinated effort would be required with greater use of scientific data, detailed working of cost norms for different activities and efficient planning along micro watershed lines. Emphasis is laid on training of project staff at the district/watershed level for preparation of plans and creating awareness among the people of the project areas. Stress is also laid on the need for developing effective liaison between agricultural research agencies and implementing agencies for effective transfer of technology. To ensure participation of people in planning and implementation of the programme, various measures have been taken, such as preparation of watershed development plan with the help of the people in the watershed itself under the guidance of technical experts, and adequate local representation in the Watershed Development Committee set up for implementation of the project. In the Eighth Plan renewed thrust along these lines will be given to the DPAP.
Land Reforms 2.11.1 The land reforms policy has consisted of the following:
a) Abolition of intermediaries;
b) Tenancy reforms with security to actual cultivators;
C) Redistribution of surplus ceiling land;
d) Consolidation of holdings; and
e) Updating of land records.
2.11.2 In the first stage of the programme there was, in the early fifties, the abolition of `Zamindari', which covered 40% of the land area of the country benefitting 20 million cultivators. Fifteen lakh areas of wasteland were also vested in the State. In the process of implementing, this measure, old Zamindars succeeded in retaining large tracts for self-cultivation.
2.11.3 There are tenancy laws in all the States except Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram. They provide for conferment of ownership on the tenant by the State, acquisition of ownership by tenants on payment of reasonable compensation, security of tenure and fixation of fair rent. Certain categories such as widows, members of armed forces, minors, etc. are treated specially under these laws. In certain other cases, provision is also made for limited right of resumption. However, the implementation of these laws in States has been quite varied. West Bengal, Karnataka and Kerala have achieved more success than the other States. In West Bengal, 14 lakh share- croppers have been recorded under the `Operation Barga'. Karnataka set up land tribunals to settle tenancy issues and these decided in favour of 3,00,000 tenants involving 11 lakh acres of land. In Kerala, through the tenants' association, applications of 24 lakh ten- ants for conferment of ownership were accepted. However, on the whole, tenancy reforms have not achieved the desired results as the incidence of informal oral or concealed tenancies is very high. In fact, it was envisaged in the Sixth Plan that legislative measures to confer ownership rights to tenants would be introduced in all States by 1981-82. This is still an issue that has to be tackled.
2.11.4 Ceilings legislation were enacted by all the States except Goa and the North East region in accordance with the National guidelines of 1972. However, success has has been limited due
33
to poor enforcement. Of the 72.2 lakhs acres of land declared surplus, 46.5 lakh acres had been distributed by the end of the Seventh Plan and 25.7 lakh acres are still to be distributed.
2.11.5 Consolidation of holdings has made progress in some States while in others it is yet to make a beginning. Fifteen States have passed laws for consolidation of holdings. Those not having laws are Andhra Pradesh (in select areas of Andhra Pradesh), Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Pondichery and the North-Eastern States. Tenants, share croppers and small landowners, have a fear that consolidation favours the larger farmers. So far, about 1494 lakh acres have been covered.
2.11.6 The allotees of surplus ceiling land require assured access to inputs. This is being done under a scheme wherein Rs.2500/- per hectare are provided for land development, purchase of inputs and for meeting other. needs. States have been asked to make 40% allotment of surplus land to women and the remaining in joint names of husbands and wives.
2.11.7 The Centrally Sponsored Scheme for the strengthening of revenue administration and updating of land records was introduced during the Seventh Plan. Under this scheme, by the end of the Seventh Plan Rs.25.57 crores have been allocated to 29 States and Union Territories for purchase of equipment and strengthening of training infrastructure.
2.11.8 Nineteen pilot projects for computerisation of land records have been taken up, one in each major State. These are fully financed by the Central government at the rate of Rs.25 lakhs each. The project envisages computerisation of the record of rights in the first stage, and both input and output will be in the local language. Computers are being installed at the Tehsil and district headquarters, with the objective of online updating and making available a copy of the record of rights to cultivators on demand. The project is nearing completion in Morena district of Madhya Pradesh and Dungerpur of Rajasthan. The progress in other States needs to be expedited.
Development Administration 2.11.9 During the Seventh Plan, the various rural development programmes were planned and implemented by a single agency at the district level called the District Rural Development Agency (DRDA). However, at the block level there was an attempt to return to the earlier community development pattern. But this was not easy, as the BDO had lost effective control over the Extension Officers who were functioning under their own departmental heirarchies. Also, there had been a tremendous increase in the volume of work and in the funds flowing at the block level. As against Rs.17 lakh per year in the sixties, it became Rs. 1 crore per block per year. This put an enormous burden on the administrative system.
2.11. 10 A Committee was set up to review the existing administrative arrangements for rural development, which submitted its report in 1985. It reemphasised the need for decentralised planning at the district level and below. It opined that where Zila Parishads were in existence rural development programmes should be transferred to them. This would ensure participation of local representatives in planning and they in turn would reflect the needs and aspirations of the local people. Of course, they would also be accoutable to the people they represent. In States where Zila Parishads are not in existence, the setting up of District Development Councils with Government officers as the Chief Executives was suggested. In either case, it was envisaged that planning and implementation of sectoral activities would be decentralised and integrated into a unified activity, with horizontal coordination at the district level. Similarly, at the block level too, an integrated area plan was imperative, based on availability of local skills and resources. However, no uniform pattern was adopted across States. In 1989-90, the introduction of the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, wherein it was stipulated that the funds would be placed at the disposal of the village panchayats, marked a shift towards democratic decen- tralisation, with certain funds and powers vested in the gram panchayats for development.
Panchayati Raj 2.12.1 Panchayati Raj Institutions are in existence in almost all the States and UTs but with considerable variations in their structure, mode of election, etc. In 14 States/UTs, the three-tier system exists, while four States have two-tier and nine states/UTs have one-tier system. In Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mi-
34
zoram, a large part of Manipur and some other hilly areas of North- Eastern States, these institutions are established in accordance with the traditions and customs of the village. At the end of the Seventh Plan, there were 2,17,300 Gram Panchayats, 4525 block Panchayati Samities and 330 Zila Parishads in the country. The tenure of the elected bodies is between 3 and 5 years.
2.12.2 However, Panchayati Raj Institutions suffer from inadequate resources, both financial and technical. In most of the States, they are not entrusted with enough powers and financial responsibilities. With a view to strengthening the Panchayati Raj Institutions and making them a vibrant instrument of local self-Government, a process of grassroot level consultation was initiated towards the end of the Seventh Plan period. For the first time, Panchayati Raj Sammalens were held in the different regions during 1989 wherein delegates comprising Sarpanches, Taluka/Block Panchayati Samities President, Chairman of Zila Parishad and Chariman of Muncipal Committees/Town Area Committees and Notified Area Committees participated. The main objective is to make these institutions strong, reflecting the felt needs of the people.
2.12.3 To revitalise the Panchayats, a Constitution Amendment Bill (Constitution 72nd Amendment Bill, 1991) was introduced in Parliament in 1991. The Constitution Amendment Bill itself provides for, inter- alia, a `Gram Sabha' in each village, constitution of panchayats at village and other level or levels, direct elections in all States to Panchayats at the village level and intermediate levels, reservation for scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes in proportion to their population and reservation of not less than one-third of the seats for women, fixing tenure of five years for local authorities, and holding elections within a period of six months in the event of supersession of any such authority. The State legislatures are required to devolve powers and responsibilities on the panchayats for preparation of plans for economic development and social justice and for implementation of development schemes. Grants-in-aid to panchayats from consolidated fund of the State as also conferment of powers for levy of taxes, duties, tolls and fees are provided for. Further, it envisaged the setting up of a Finance Commission, within one year of the Amendment Bill and, thereafter, every five years to review the financial position of local authorities. While the Bill has been introduced in Parliament, it is yet to be debated and passed. Once enacted, democratic decentralisation will be achieved through the Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Voluntary Action 2.13.1 Recognising the important role of voluntary agencies in accelerating the process of social and economic development, the Seventh Plan placed a great deal of emphasis on people's participation and voluntary action in rural development. The role of voluntary agencies has been defined as providing a basis for innovation with new approaches towards integrated development, ensuring feed-back regarding impact of various programmes and securing the involvement of local communities, particularly, those below the poverty line. The need for a cadre of trained animators and social organisers was rec- ognised and a massive programme for training the identified persons was prepared with the help of establishing Voluntatry Organisations.
2.13.2 Further, the scheme of organisation of beneficiaries of anti-poverty programmes which was undertaken on a pilot basis for two years from 1986-87 was continued during the Seventh Plan period. This scheme was intended to increase the awareness and strengthen the bargaining position of the beneficiaries of anti-poverty programmes so as to help them get the maximum benefits from the programmes meant for their economic uplift. This was to be done through awareness generation camps, which were organised with the assistance of voluntary organisations.
2.13.3 At the Central level, the Council for Advancement of People's Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) is the agency for pro- viding and assisting voluntary action in the area of rural development. Its funds comprises mainly grants from the Government of India. Programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development including, IRDP, JRY, DWCRA, TRYSEM, Organisation of beneficiaries, Accelerated rural water supply, Central rural sanitation programme etc. are implemented by voluntary agencies through the assistance of CAPART. In addition, CAPART has taken the initiatives in promoting a variety of activities for transfer of technology, people's participation,
35
development of markets for products of rural enterprises and promotion of other developmental activities and delivery systems in the non- government sector.
Eighth Plan Approach
Special Employment Programmes 2.14.1 Elimination of poverty continues to be a major concern of development planning. Expansion of employment opportunities, augmen- tation of productivity and income levels of both the underemployed and employed poor would be the main instrument for achieving this objective during the Eighth Plan. However, even an employment oriented growth strategy will achieve this goal only in the medium and longterm. In the meantime, short-term employment will have to be provided to the unemployed and underemployed, particularly among the poor and vulnerable sections, through the existing special employment programmes namely the IRDP and JRY. However, it must be recognised that while they meet the short-term objective of providing temporary work to the unemployed they must contribute to the creation of produc- tive capacity of areas and/or individuals. This would be better achieved by a greater integration of the existing special employment programmes with other sectoral development programmes, which, in turn, would generate larger and more sustainable employment.