EDUCATION
I. GENERAL Education is of basic importance in the planned development of a nation. The educational machinery will have to be geared for the specific tasks which the nation sets itself through the Plan so as to make available in the various fields personnel of suitable quality at the required rate. The educational system has also an intimate bear- ing on the attainment of the general objectives of the Plan inasmuch as it largely determines the quality of the manpower and the social climate of the community. In a democratic set up, the role of educa- tion becomes crucial, since it can function effectively only if there is an intelligent participation of the masses in the affairs of the country. The success of planning in a democracy depends also on the growth of the spirit of co-operation and the sense of disciplined citizenship among the people and on the degree to which it becomes possible to evoke public enthusiasm and build up local leadership. It is essential for the successful implementation of the Plan that the educational programme helps to train the people to place responsibili- ties before rights and to keep the self-regarding outlook and the force of the acquisitive instinct within legitimate bounds. The educational system should also satisfy cultural needs, which is essen- tial for the healthy growth of a nation. The system should stimulate the growth of the creative faculties, increase the capacity for enjoy- ment and develop a spirit of critical appreciation of arts, literature and other creative activities. The fulfilment of the objectives mentioned above, will lead to the development of an integrated person- ality in the individual, which should be the first and foremost aim of any system of education.
2. The lines of future reorganisation have become clear in many directions as a result of the deliberations of various committees and commissions set up in recent years and the pioneering work of private institutions. The Planning Commission is mainly concerned with view- ing education as a part of the total national effort, establishing and strengthening its links with other aspects of national life and as- signing priorities for the various educational, programmes awaiting implementation.
ASSESSMENT OF PRESENT POSITION 3. An analysis of the existing situation reveals the following features that need special attention :-
(1) Considering the size of the population, the overall provi- sion of educational facilities is very inadequate. They are provided for only 40.0* per cent of the children of the age-group
*Figures are provisional.
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6-11 and 10.0* per cent of the persons of the age-group 11-17 and 0.9 per cent or those of the age-group 17-23. The directive of the Constitution, however, is that free and compulsory education should be provided for all children up to the age of 14 within ten years of the commencement of the Constitution. This will necessitate expansion of facilities at higher levels also as more and more students pass out of primary schools. The literacy percentage of our population is 17.2* which is only a very rough measure of the huge task lying ahead in the field of social education. Similarly facilities for technical education need to be considerably expanded to meet the needs of the country adequately.
(2) The overall structure of the educational system is defective in many ways, one of which is that it is top-heavy. Although the provision at the secondary stage is properly proportioned to that at the primary stage, that at the university stage is larger than the base structure can profitably support. This is revealed also by the distribution of educational expenditure among the various stages. In 1949-50, for example, the direct! expenditure on primary schools was only 34.2 per cent of the total educational expenditure, whereas a sound and properly proportioned system of education requires that the major share of this expenditure should be incurred on primary educa- tion. The emphasis on primary education needs to be very considerably increased during the period of the Plan, which would necessitate a corresponding increase in secondary education during the next stage of our development, though some expansion would be inevitably required even during the present period to cope with the increased demand for teachers for the large number of schools at the primary stage that would come into being. In view of the decision of the Government to adopt the basic pattern at this stage, the need of teachers for these schools will require expansion of facilities at the secondary stage on post-basic lines. Otherwise, however, both in the field of secondary and university education, the general problem is one of consolidation rather than expansion, except in certain fields like Agricultural and Technical High Schools at the secondary stage and Public Administra- tion, Social Service Administration, Business and Industrial Adminis- tration, etc., at the university stage-where provision is non-existent or insufficient. Another reason is that the recent expansion in these fields has not always been on a sound basis with adequate provision of teachers, equipment, etc., which has unduly lowered standards.
There are grave disparities between different States in the matter of provision of educational facilities. The expenditure on education compared to total revenues and population also varies in different States. The internal distribution of expenditure should be so arranged and Central grants should be so dispensed that at least the serious inequalities between States tend to disappear.
Educational facilities are not properly distributed between urban and rural areas, Whereas 82.8 per cent of the population live in rural areas the percentage of the total number of pupils in recognised primary, middle and high schools that were studying in rural areas in 1949-50, was 60, 67 and 26 respectively. The respective percentages in 1937-38 were 82, 72 and 28. At the university level facilities are practically non-existent in the rural
* Figures are provinsional. ! it is very difficult to estimate the indirect expenditure.
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areas. Expenditure on recognised educational institutions in rural areas fell from 36 per cent of the total expenditure in 1937-38 to 30 per cent in 1949-50 although the total cxpenditure on education in rural areas had considerably increased.
There is lack of balance between provision of facilities for different sections of society. The problem of backward tribes and scheduled castes is dealt with under Social Welfare. Of special concern in this regard is the neglect of women's education. Whereas women constitute nearly half the population, the girl pupils in the primary, middle and high school stages ill 1949-50, were only 28, 18 and 13 per cent respectively of the total number of pupils studying in these stages. In universities and colleges* for the same year girls were only 10.4 per cent of the total-number of students. At the primary stage most of the States have not found it feasible to have separate schools for girls and the only remedy lies in propaganda among parents to remove their prejudice against co-education in pri- mary schools. Co-education at the middle and high school stages may not be feasible in the present state of our society, and emphasis would need to be laid on the development of middle and high schools for girls. Girl students should also be encouraged to take to higher, studies by freestudentships and scholarships.
The various stages of the educational system are not clearly and rationally marked out. The duration and standards of the primary and secondary stages vary considerably in different States. The relation- ship of basic education with ordinary primary education and that of post-basic education with existing secondary education, has not been clearly defined. Again, while most of the students finish their educational career at the close of the primary stage in the first instance and then at the end of the secondary stage, none of these stages is complete by itself. The proper definition and integration of the different stages and branches of the educational system are an urgent necessity
(3) Another disturbing feature of the situation is the large wastage that occurs in various forms at different stages of education. At the primary stage quite a large number of pupils discontinue their studies even before obtaining a state of permanent literacy. Of the total number of students entering schools in 1945-46 only 40.0 per cent reached class IV in 1948-49. The expenditure on the remaining 60.0 per cent was largely wasted. The experiment of compulsion, which is generally regarded as the only remedy for improving the position., has not made much progress. In 1948-49 approximately only 115 lakhs pupils were under compulsion and most of the States expressed their inability to enforce it. The problem of 'stagnation', that is, where a pupil spends a number of years in the same class, is also serious. There is, moreover, incomplete utilisation of existing facilities, as is shown by the unsatisfactory results of a large number of students. This wastage is largely due to the poor quality of teaching as well as faulty methods of education. Another form of wastage is the unplanned growth of educational institutions.
The absence of adequate facilities for technical and vocational education results in a much Urger number of students going in for general education than is justified by the requirements of the country or the tastes and aptitudes of the pupils. The undue emphasis on the academic and theoretical aspects of education retards the development of the practical sense,
* Includes students of Boards of Intermed ate Education.
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initiative and resourcefulness among large numbers of students. One result of this is that educated people tend to depend too much on employment by Government or commercial concerns, which can absorb only a limited number. This also leads to undue strain on the resources of universities as students, on the completion of secondary education, tend to drift to universities in the absence of any other alternative. Education should, therefore, be given a more practical bias from the very beginning and at the post-secondary stage there should be greater adjustment between the needs of the country and the output of educa- tional institutions.
(4) The position in regard to teachers is highly unsatisfactory. A very large percentage of them are untrained. In 1949-50 the per- centage of untrained teachers was 41.4 per cent in primary schools and 46.4 per cent in secondary schools. For purposes of educational reorganisation most of the trained teachers will also require consid- erable retraining. Expansion of training facilities, therefore, deserves very high priority.
Another feature of the situation is the dearth of women teachers, who are especially suited, for balwadis (including pre-schools and day nurseries) and primary schools. To remove this shortage, facilities for part-time work in schools should be provided for married women, who cannot devote their whole time to the profession. Indigent women should also be trained as teachers.
The scales of pay and conditions of service of teachers are generally very unsatisfactory and constitute a major cause of the low standards of teaching.
(5) The high cost of education, especially at the university level, prevents many an intelligent student from proceeding to higher studies. The provision of free-studentships and scholarships needs to be considerably increased. It should be a principle of State policy that none who has the capacity to profit by higher education should be debarred from getting it. Since the limited economic resources of the State will place limitations on the implementation of this principle, facilities for part-time work by students to meet the expenses of their education should be developed to the utmost possible extent.
(6) The undue stress on examinations and memory work in the present system of education is not conducive to the development of originality or a spirit of research.
(7) Lack of facilities prevents institutions from building up the physical and mental health of students.
(8) There has been a general neglect of the study of our own culture with the result that the educated classes are often divided by a gulf from the mass of the people. The system of education should help in building up the cultural and political identity of the nation. Graded text books for the purpose of building up civic loyalties and creating understanding of democratic citizenship should be prepared.
(9) The meaning of planned development and the Five Year Plan needs also to be universally taught in our educational institutions and included in social education programmes.
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4. Some attempts have been made to remodel the system in such a way as to suit our needs better. At the primary level the basic pattern has been accepted and a beginning has been made in the matter of opening new basic schools and converting some of the existing primary schools into basic ones. Some attempts have also been made to make secondary education more broad-based and practical. But by and large teaching continues on old lines and practically the entire task of remodelling the system stiff remains to be done.
5. Summing up, the needs of the present situation are :
(1) re-orientation of the educational system and integration of its different stages and branches ;
(2) expansion in various fields, especially in those of basic and social education, remodelled secondary education and technical and vocational education ;
(3) consolidation of existing secondary and university education and the devising of a system of higher educa- tion suited to the needs of the rural areas ;
(4) expansion of facilities for women's education, especially in the rural areas
(5) training of teachers, especially women teachers and teachers for basic schools, and improvement in their pay-scales and conditions of service ; and
(6) helping backward States by giving preferential treatment to them in the matter of grants.
RESOURCES 6. In the context of our needs, our resources are very inade- quate. The Committee on the Ways and Means of Financing Educational Development in India estimates that a national system of education- providing education for 100 per cent of the children of the age-group 6-14, secondary education for 20 per cent of those coming out of the first stage, university education for 10 per cent of those passing out of high schools, technical education on a modest scale and other minor items-when it comes into full operation, will require an annual ex- penditure of nearly Rs. 400 crores. In addition, for basic and high schools only approximately Rs. 200* crores will be necessary to train 27 lakhs of teachers that will be required and Rs. 272 crores for buildings. The total number of teachers in 1949-50 was about 7! lakhs, most of whom would require retraining to fit in the schemes of educational reorganisation. No authoritative assessment exists of our present resources in buildings but it is common knowledge that most of the buildings, at least of the primary schools, are very inadequate for the purpose for which they are used. In spite of considerable increase in the provision for education in recent years the total educational expenditure in 1949-50 was only about Rs. 100 !crores.
* For basic teachers and teachers of junior departments of high schools Rs. 325 per year per trainee and for teachers of senior de- partments of high schools Rs. 400 per year per trainee has been as- sumed. The training period has been taken as 3 years.
! In primary and secondary schools.
! Figures are provisional.
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7. The Five Year Plan makes a provision of Rs. 151.66 crores: (35.02 crores for the Centre and Rs. 116.64 crores for the States) for educational development or of Rs. 30.33 crores per annum. This average indicates an increase of 55 per cent over the development expenditure in 1950-51 which was Rs. 19.55 crores for the Centre as well as the States, The inadequacy, of this provision is all too, obvious. It is also obvious that the gap between needs and resources available, or likely to be available, cannot be covered from the State finances alone. And yet it has to be recognised that the provision of a certain minimum of education to all citizens within a rea-sonably short period of time is an essential pre-requisite, next only to food, for the successful implementation of development programmes and survival of democracy in India. It is extremely urgent, therefore, that all other possible sources of help should be discovered and fully utilised.
8. In the context of prevailing conditions a larger share of responsibility for social services will have to be borne by the people themselves. In the case of education there, is evidence that the people are keen to contribute in cash, kind, labour or land for creat- ing the necessary facilities. It should be a major aim of the Central and State Governments and non-official organisations to explore this avenue and harness this urge in the people by using their influence, judiciously providing technical aid and grants, and stimulating a spirit of emulation among local communities. The school should become a focus for the joint endeavour of the community and the hub of its social, cultural and economic life. This approach can take different forms from putting up a building, supplying furniture and equipment, making contribution in cash or kind at the time of the harvest or labour in the off-season, to taking up responsibility for running the school as their own. It is possible to visualise the village communi- ty as not merely supplying adequate land but also digging wells and supplying bullocks, seeds, manure, implements and labour for cultivat- ing the land so that its produce is a net profit to the school which can be used for running it and the many social, cultural and other activities of the community that would grow round it. The village community has experience of this mutual-aid activity for their own farming needs. Its administration will, therefore, not require any specialised Organisation. This will give opportunity to the construc- tive workers, the members of the Bharat Sevak Samaj and Panchayats and will introduce a series of activities so essential for creating and maintaining interest, confidence and initiative in the local communi- ty. It will give the administrator-with his influence, organisational capacity and experience-scope for constructive leadership amidst the routine of his work. Besides mobilising the help of the local commu- nity for the cause of education every attempt must be made to develop the productive aspect of basic and social education.
PRIORITIES 9. The paucity of our immediate resources makes it imperative that our programmes be selected according to a careful system of priorities, so that the most urgent needs may be met and the most effective use made of the money spent. In view, however, of the varying needs and resources of different parts of the country and the differences in their general