WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT
The Constitution of India not only provides for equal rights and privileges for women and men but also for making special provision for women. A series, of social legislations have been enacted from time to time for raising the status of women in the country. The Five Year Plans have consistently placed special emphasis on providing minimum health facilities integrated with family welfare and nutrition for women and children, acceleration of women's education, their increase in the labour force and welfare services for women in need. Various welfare and development schemes have been introduced to improve the living conditions of women and to increase their access to and control over material and social resources. Special steps have been taken to remove legal, social and other constraints to enable them to make use of the rights and new opportunities becoming available for them.
27.2 Various studies show that women are becoming increasingly conscious of their rights and capabilities. However, the demographic features of female population like excessive mortality in female children resulting in persistent decline in sex ratio, low rate of literacy, and low economic status stress the need for greater attention to the economic emancipation of women. The low status of women in large segments of Indian society cannot be raised without opening up of opportunities of independent employment and income for them. But the process of change to raise the status of women under various spheres of socioeconomic activities would require sustained effort over a period of time.
REVIEW 27.3 Under the different Five Year Plans, general as well as special programmes were taken up for the welfare of women and also to cater to their special requirements. A wide network of maternity and child health centres and family welfare centres were established. An attempt to integrate the family welfare programme with general health services has been made. Prophylaxis against nutritional anaemia amongst mothers and immunisation of pregnant women against tetanus has been taken up along with prophylaxis against blindness in children caused by Vitamin 'A' deficiency and immunisation against diphtheria, whooping-cough, tetanus and polio for children.
27.4 Special nutrition programme was started in 1970-71 for providing nutritional supplements to the most vulnerable group of pregnant and nursing mothers and children of the age group 0-5. Nutrition education has been made a basic component of supplementary nutrition, health and education programmes.
27.5 Emphasis has been laid on increasing the enrolment of girls in schools by providing various incentives. Functional literacy as part of the national adult education programme as well as under the Integrated Child Development Services projects has been given special emphasis.
27.6 The Equal Remuneration Act aims to eliminate discrimination in remuneration against women. Labour laws have been made to provide for material benefits and creches in units employing women.
27.7 Social welfare programmes cater to the special needs of women who by reason of some handicap-social, economic, physical or mental are unable to avail of or are traditionally denied the amenities and services provided by the community. In the beginning, emphasis was on the provision of institutional services but it has now been shifted to the preventive and developmental aspects.
27.8 Despite all these development measures and the Constitutional legal guarantees, women have lagged behind men in almost all sectors, There has been a steady decline in sex ratio. For 1,000 men there were 972 women in 1901, which became 946 in 1951 and 930 in 1971, while the position is opposite in the developed countries. Sex ratio for all ages in 1971 was 951 for rural areas and 857 for urban areas. The inter-State variations are considerable.The ratio is adverse in the States of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and West Bengal.It is most favourable in Kerala, followed by Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Similarly, the expectation of life at birth, a good indicator of development, shows that it is 44.7 for the females against 46.4 for the males in 1971.
27.9 The surveys by the Registrar-General of India reveal that the infant mortality rate (IMR) is more among female babies as compared to males in rural and urban areas as may be seen from the table below:
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Table 27.1
Infant Mortality Rate by Sex and Residence
Rural Urban All India
Year
Male Female Male Female Male Female
1972 141 161 85 85 132 148
1978 130 142 69 71 120 131
27.10 It has been estimated that in 1978-79 of the total non- enrolled children of the age group 6-14, two-thirds were girls. In 1979-80, in the age group 6-11, the population of girls in schools was two-thirds that of the boys (about 66 per cent for girls against about 100.2 per cent for boys). In the age group 11-14, the number of girls in the schools was half that of the boys (28 per cent for girls and 52.0 per cent for boys).
27.11 In literacy also, excluding 0-4 years age group, the number of women literates is less than half of the males (i.e., 21.97 per cent for women against 45.95 per cent for males). The rural female literacy rate is only 13.2 per cent (1971) while the urban rate is 42.3 per cent. About 83 districts have less than 5 per cent female literacy and 113 between 5 and 10 per cent. The female literacy for scheduled caste is 6.44 per cent and for scheduled tribe is 4.85 per cent. The rates of literacy varied widely from 3.58 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, 4.8 per cent in Rajasthan, 7.2 per cent in Bihar to 61 per cent in Kerala.
27.12 Despite preventive legislation, the age of marriage for girls specially in rural areas and lower strata of society has remained low. The Report of the Committee on the Status of Women shows that the percentage of girls married by 14 years of age in rural areas in 1961 was as high as 22 as compared to 7 among the urban females of the same age group. By 1971, this percentage came down to 14 in rural areas while it dropped to 4 in urban areas. Early marriages result in frequent pregnancies. poor health and lack of opportunity for proper personality development. Repeated pregnancies account for high incidence of anaemia and maternal malnutrition, ultimately leading to high maternal mortality rate.
27.13 Women labour force participation rate remained generally unchanged for the last three decades around 28 per cent while in the case of men it was fairly stable around 57 per cent. In the organised sector the women's share increased only slightly from 11 per cent in 1971 to 12.4 per cent in 1979. A few women in all walks of life reached the top positions but on the whole they continue to be concentrated mainly in low-scale, low-wage and drudgery involving jobs. Women are mainly employed in the unorganised sector which forms the overwhelming majority of female workers (over 90 per cent). This is also linked with their low rate of participation in the training programmes in industrial training institutes, polytechnics, engineering colleges, Krishi Vigyan Kendras, technical and industrial schools, though special measures to expand training opportunities for women in non-traditional occupations have been taken. The details given in Annexures 27.1 and 27.2 are relevant in this regard.
STRATEGY 27.14 The main drawbacks in women's development have thus been mainly preoccupation with repeated pregnancies without respite in physical workload, lack of education, formal and non-formal and a preponderance of social prejudices along with lack of independent economic generation activity or independent assets. The strategy thus has to be threefold-of education, employment and health. They are Interdependent and dependent on the total developmental process. In addition, the voluntary adoption of the small family norm has to be promoted among all couples.
27.15 In the Plan, the basic approach is of the family as a unit of development. Within this approach, special attention on the most vulnerable members will be given. The most vulnerable members may change from family to family and within the family from time to time. But for some time in future, women will continue to be one of the most vulnerable members of the family. Hence, the economic emancipation of the family with specific attention to women,, education of children. and family planning will constitute the three, major operational aspects of the family centred poverty alleviation strategy.
27.16 In order to understand and analyse the backwardness of women a disaggregated view of the problem, according to groups, communities and areas is necessary. An aggregate picture is sometimes misleading, e.g., the average female literacy in India is 22 per cent against about 4 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh.
27.17 Separate cells in organisations and agencies generating substantial employment opportunities to look after the women's interests are helpful but have a limited role. It is more important to create a general awareness' and understanding of the problems of women's employment in all the top policy and decision making and executive personnel. There is also the special problem facing women like the preference for male children for social and cultural reasons. This will require awareness, understanding and action. The best way to do so is to educate the children, orient the teachers, examine the text books and teaching-aids and ensure that the next generation grows up with new thinking. As it is not enough to wait for them, non- formal education of men and women is necessary as an immediate short- term measure. Both men and women need education in home science so that the concept of symmetrical families can take root.
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27.18 In order to take corrective measures as the programmes are implemented, the statistical data of physical achievement in beneficiary-oriented programmes will have to be collected by sex. The implementation of programmes would be reviewed from time to time.
27.19 Economic independence would accelerate the improvement of the status of women. Government would endeavour to give joint titles to husband and wife in all development activities involving transfer of assets. This would be taken up for implementation to start within programmes like distribution of land and house-sites and beneficiary- oriented economic units.
27.20 Voluntary action has a key role to play in mobilising public support against social prejudices. Hence its strengthening at the grassroot level will be necessary. Such organisation of voluntary action is necessary for creating a proper climate for the introduction of social legislation as well as for its effective implementation and the provision of legal aid.
27.21 For promoting adequate developmental efforts for women at different levels and creating needed channels for women to participate effectively in decisions that affect their lives, grassroot level organisations should be promoted. Mahila Mandals and other voluntary agencies would be encouraged to take up socioeconomic programmes for providing wages and self-employment in rural areas. They would be linked with cooperatives and federations for marketing of products. Adequate attention should be paid to offer technical and managerial assistance to these agencies so that they would prepare viable economic projects for attracting institutional finance and market their products. Marketing, being crucial to the programme, the arrangements would need to be reviewed.
27.22 The Central Social Welfare Board would continue to be largely responsible to extend support, both technical and financial, to voluntary agencies, particularly in the backward areas. The programmes of the Central Social Welfare Board and those of individual developments will be functionally integrated so as to optimise the benefits from all programmes intended for women.
27.23 Advisory Committees at different levels would be set up for reviewing the adequacy of the implementing machinaries and periodic progress for various social legislations such as Anti-Dowry Act, Child Marriage Restraint Act, Indian Succession Act, etc. The National Committee for Women beaded by the Prime Minister will provide overall guidance and leadership in this field.
27.24 At district levels, special Cells for increasing women's participation through wage and self-employment would be set up as part of the proposed machinery for district manpower planning and employ- ment generation.
27.25 Research and studies to improve data base regarding women would be supported Coordination, evaluation and monitoring of the programmes would need to be improved. Science and technology to reduce drudgery of household work would be supported.
Education 27.26 The programmes for universalisation of elementary education will be specially directed towards higher enrolment and retention of girls in schools. This would require Balwadi-cum-creches attached to the schools to enable the girls to attend school since otherwise they would have to stay at home to look after the younger brothers and sisters in the absence of mothers at work. It would also require income-generation work for girls outside, the school hours to supplement the family's income. Other incentives like uniforms, free books and stationery etc., already in force, would need to be effectively expanded. Women teachers, where necessary, would be appointed in rural areas to encourage girls education. Residential quarters for women teachers would also be constructed. Science teaching in girls' schools/colleges will be strengthened to achieve greater participation of women in science and technology. Admission poicies will be streamlined to promote greater enrolment of women in engineering, electronics, agricultural, veterinary, fishery and forestry courses. In education and training, women would thus be brought to the mainstream along with men to share the facilities fully.
27.27 The functional literacy programme would be expanded, specially in areas having low female literacy rates. Special non- formal educational programmes will be introduced for girls in the age group 15-20 years who could not complete formal schooling earlier. Every effort will be made to ensure that at-least 1/3 of trainees under the TRYSEM programme are girls. Special Krishi, Udyog and Van Vigyan Kendras will be established for women.
27.28 For boosting the programmes for education of women belonging to backward classes, the number of girls' hostels would be increased. The rates of post-matric scholarships for different courses are higher for girls as compared to boys. This scheme would be further expanded to provide larger opportunities for girls. Instead of increasing separate women's polytechnics, which were developed as multipurpose institutions for imparting training in arts, crafts, etc., co- educational institutions would be encouraged as far as possible.
Health 27.29 In health. provision will be made for continuing and expanding the maternal and child health schemes including antenatal, natal and postnatal services, training of popular 'DAIS' who are already practising in every village so as to reduce the maternal and neo-natal deaths and complications. Training capacity for ANMs would be further augmented to meet the requirement of sub-centres.Experi-
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ence reveals that ANMs posted in rural areas are not able to adjust to the local conditions due to lack of familiarity with the socio- cultural situation, accommodation and security. To overcome these field problems, efforts would be made to select girls from local areas, relax minimum educational qualifications, raise upper-age limit and give preference to widows or deserted women. In almost all the hospitals, the nursing personnel are mainly female. The training facilities for them will be expanded. Family welfare programmes will receive high priority. Sustained effort would be made to create consciousness, acceptance and demand for this programme. Cooperation of the voluntary organisations would be sought for disseminating relevant health and family planning information and for launching a national movement for population stabilization.
27.30 Effort would be made to expand the minimum health facilities integrated with family welfare and nutrition. The nutritional status of a child at birth is influenced by the nutritional status of his mother. It is well documented that a vast majority of pregnant and nursing mothers, especially belonging to the low socioeconomic group, live on diets which are inadequate.The high incidence of pre-maturity, low birth weight of babies and neo-natal mortality can be attributed to poor nutritional condition among the mothers. In view of this, importance will be given to improving the maternal nutrition status. With an increase in women's employment, the income of the household would go up thereby resulting not only in raising the nutrition and child-care in the family but also bringing down the birth rate and infant mortality rate.
27.31 The long-term approach to solving the problem of malnutrition in women would be to generate employment among them as it would provide purchasing power to women which will have an impact on her as well as her family's nutritional status. Along with this, basic services like health, creche-cum-balwadis, etc. would be provided to enable their employment retention. Till the long-term programme effectively builds up, nutrition intervention to most vulnerable groups of women, namely, pregnant and nursing mothers from the weakest sections of the society, would continue to get nutrition supplement under the Supplementary Nutrition Programme. Education will also be imparted on the production and consumption of nutritious foods and on the adoption of simple horticultural remedies involving kitchen gardening for the major nutritional maladies of each block.
Employment 27.32 One of the most important means of achieving improvement in the status of women would be to secure for them a fair share of employment opportunities. Areas and sectors where women's employment is either low or on the decline would be identified and corrective measures initiated to promote additional avenues for employment. Effort would be made to offer larger employment for them in the schemes for public distribution system, rural godowns, Operation Flood II, Dairy Development and social forestry and in armed forces. Modernisation of traditional occupations of women such as spinning and weaving, match-making, coir, cashew, rural marketing, agriculture, animal husbandry and fishery, etc., would be selective and would include simultaneous development of skills for alternative employment for them. Mechanisation will be encouraged in such areas where the processing or manufacturing involves extremely strenuous and debilitating hard work which is injurious to health. The impact of new projects on women's employment will be monitored.