EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION THE system of education has a determining influence on the rate at which economic progress is achieved and the benefits which can be derived from it Economic development naturally makes growing demands on human resources and in a democratic set-up it calls for values and attitudes in the building up of which the quality of education is an important element. The socialist pattern of society assumes wide- spread participation of the people in all activities and constructive leadership at various levels. In a period of intensive development however, the resources to be allocated for education and the targets to be achieved are among the difficult issues which have to be faced in drawing up a plan of economic and social development. In recent years, there has been a great deal of re-examination of the pattern of education, and on several issues the opinion of educationists has crystallised into fairly specific proposals for change, as indicated in the recommendations of the University Education Commission, the Secondary Education Commission and a number of committees which have inquired into educational problems. The progress achieved in differ- ent branches of education has been reviewed by the Central and State Governments with a view to formulating programmes for the second five year plan. The main features of the programmes which have been drawn up are indicated in this chapter.
2. The second five year plan provides for a larger emphasis on basic education, expansion of elementary education, diversification of secondary education, improvement of standards of college and universi- ty education, extension of facilities for technical and vocational education and the implementation of social education and cultural development programmes. In the first five year plan about Rs. 169 crores were provided for the development of education-Rs. 44 crores at the Centre and Rs. 125 crores in the States. In the second five year plan, Rs. 307 crores have been provided--Rs. 95 crores at the Centre and Rs. 212 crores in the States. The distribution of outlay between different fields of education in the first anti second plans is set out below:-
First Plan Second Plan
(Rs. in crores)
Elementary Education 93 89
Secondary Education 22 51
University Education 15 57
Technical and Vocational Education 23 48
Social Education 5 5
Administration and Miscellaneous 11 57
TOTAL 169 307
A proportion of the outlay provided for in the first plan related to the continuance of schemes of educational development which had been introduced prior to the plan; for the second plan, however, expenditure on educational institutions which have come into existence in the course of the first plan has been taken as committed expendi- ture and the plaN outlay pertains to proposals for new institutions or for the expansion or development of existing ones. In addition to the provisions mentioned above, the allotment made in the second five year plan for national extension and community projects includes about Rs. 12 crores for general education and about Rs. 10 crores for social education. Programmes indifferent sectors of development, such as, agriculture, health, welfare of backward classes, rehabilitation of displaced persons and others, also provide considerable sums for the expansion of educational facilities.
3. In the summary statement given below the progress achieved in different fields of education during the first plan and the targets proposed for the second are set out. The progress in each direction is reviewed separately in, the sections that follow.
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I. Facilities of schooling for Children in Unit 1950-51 1955-56 1960-61
different age groups
(a) 6-11 Pupils 1,86,80,000 2,48,12,000 3,25,40,000
Percentage of the age group " 42.0 51.0 62.7
(b) 11-14 33,70,000 50,95,000 63,87,000
Percentage of the age-group 13.9 19.2 22.5
(c) 14-17 " 14,50,000 23,03,000 30,70,000
Percentage of the age-group 6.4 9.4 11.7
II. Institutions
(a) Primary/Junior Basic Schools 2,09,671 2,74,038 3,26,800
(b) Junior Basic " 1,400 8,360 33,800
(c) Middle/Senior Basic " 13,596 19,270 22,725
(d) Senior Basic " 351 1,645 4,571
(e) High/Higher Secondary " 7,288 10,600 12,125
(f) Multipurpose Schools " .. 250 1,187
(g) High Schools to be upgraded to Higher Secondary Schools .. 47 1,197
(h) Universities 26 31 38
III. Engineering
(a) Institutions-
(i) Degree level 41 45 54
(ii) Diploma level 64 83 104
(b) Output-
(i) Degree holders 1,700 3,000 5,480
(ii) Diplomates 2,146 3,560 8,000
IV. Technology
(a) Institutions-
(i) Degree level 25 25 28
(it) Diploma level 36 36 37
(b) Output-
(i) Degree holders 498 700 800
(ii) Diplomates 332 430 450
4. The statement above suggests that the efforts made (luring the first plan and those envisaged in the second plan are by no means small. They have, however, to be seen against the background of the magnitude of the total problem. In several fields distinct advances have been made in recent years. Nevertheless, there are enormous tasks to be carried out For instance, a directive in the Constitution laid down that the State shall endeavour within a period of ten years from the commencement of the Constitution to provide free and compul- sory education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years. The proportion of children in the age group 6-14 years at school has risen from 32 per cent. before the first plan to 40 per cent. at the end of the first plan and is likely to increase to 49 per cent. only by the end of the second plan.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 5. The problems of education at the elementary level are mainly two: the expansion of existing facilities and the reorientation of the system of education on basic lines. Both are equally urgent tasks and vital to social and economic development
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It will be seen that the goal set in the Constitution about free, compulsory and universal education is yet faraway. The statement above gives all-India figures, but the position varies considerably between States and, in many States the averages are much lower than those for all India. It is, however, necessary to make every possible effort to fulfil the directive of the Constitution within the next ten to fifteen years.
7. The problem of expanding education facilities is a complex one and its different aspects have to be considered. It will be seen that while the progress in regard to boys of the age-group 6-11 years is satisfactory, the advance in respect of boys of the age-group 11-14 years has been relatively meagre. In both the age-groups the educa- tion of girls has lagged far behind. An aspect of the situation which causes concern is the 'wastage' which exceeds 50 per cent. at the primary stage. Thus, out of 100 pupils who join the first class at school scarcely 50 reach the fourth class, the rest dropping out before completing four years at school, which is regarded as the minimum period for providing permanent literacy. The wastage is greater in the case of girls. Closely allied to the problem of wast- age is that of stagnation, that is, a pupil continues in the same class for more than the normal period. The problems of expansion of educational facilities may differ considerably as between States and different parts of the same State. It is, therefore, necessary in each area to undertake detailed educational surveys to determine the measures needed. Such surveys are being initiated by the Ministry of Education in collaboration with State Governments. On a broad consid- eration of the facts certain general suggestions may be made for improving the situation.
8. To prevent wastage the introduction of compulsion is essen- tial. Its enforcement may be easier if busy agricultural seasons coincide with school holidays as far as possible. Further, especially in rural conditions, effort should be made to give a practical bias to education as far as possible. The principal remedy for stagnation lies in improving the quality of teachers and teaching techniques, including understanding of human relations and personality problems.
9. A most urgent problem is that of girls' education. Public opinion in every part of the country is not equally alive to the importance of girls' education. Special efforts at educating parents, combined with efforts to make education more closely related to the needs of girls, are needed. The situation in each area will need to be studied separately. Where there are difficulties in the acceptance of co-education, other methods will need to be explored. hi some areas there may be no alternative to separate schools. In others, it may be possible to adopt a shift system as an interim measure-one shift working for boys and the second for girls.
A major obstacle in the way of promoting girls education is the dearth of women teachers. In 1953-54 women teachers accounted For about 17 per cent. of the total number of teachers employed in primary and secondary schools. The task of training women teachers has to be approached as a matter of urgency, especially when it is remembered that in the third five year plan the problem of expanding primary education will to a large extent concern girls' education. The provi- sion of housing facilities for women teachers in villages would be an important step to take. Opportunities for part-time employment may draw educated married women into the teaching profession.
10. In regard to children in the age-group 11-14 years who contribute to family income, continuation schools could help keep up the education of large numbers of children at schools.
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11. There is also considerable need for making more effective use of available buildings and other facilities. In this connection the introduction of shift system in both basic and non-basic schools has been recommended by the Central Advisory Board of Education at their last meeting in 1956. This step will need to be accompanied by considerable propaganda for increasing enrolment in schools with a view to the gradual introduction of compulsion, which is necessary for taking full advantage of this scheme. The shift system has been tried only in Travancore-Cochin anti Bombay, but for the rest of the country it is a new experiment. It is suggested that it may be introduced, to begin with, in the first two classes only, and the experience gained should be reviewed at intervals, The shift system is recommended, not as an ideal method, but to meet certain practical difficulties. The reduced school hours will call for rationalisation of the curriculum and careful plan. ring of work, both inside and outside the school.
12. As regards school buildings, it is inevitable that at the present stage austere standards should be adopted. Much of the work may be done out of doors, while the minimum covered accommodation needed is provided by the local community with some assistance from public authorities. Experiments in cheap designs for schools need to be carried out. The starting of a school in a village need not be contingent on certain prescribed standards being observed. A school could be started under whatever arrangements are immediately possible in a locality, and common buildings like village temples and 'panchay- at ghars' could also be used. Once a school is actually functioning, the provision of a building can be taken in hand as soon as circum- stances are favourable and local contributions are forthcoming.
13. If the directive of the Constitution in favour of free and compulsory education up to the age of 14 years is to be fulfilled, Government's resources will have to be supplemented in increasing Measure by local community effort. In many countries the principal responsibility for providing elementary education rests with the local community. The State authorities encourage local effort by providing adequate grants-in-aid. Even in India for centuries the tradition was that most of the expenditure on education was met by the community. In recent years also local communities have come forward to make generous contributions in land, labour and money for the provision of school buildings. What is now required is, in addition, a contribu- tion towards the cost of maintenance of schools, which will be steady and recurring, not merely sporadic or occasional. To enable local communities to shoulder in some measure the continuing responsibility which this implies, it is recommended that each State should consider enacting legislation to enable local authorities (including village panchayats), to levy a cess for education. The advantage of bringing in this cess as a local measure would be that the responsibility and initiative of individual communities would be specially stressed and the people would know that whatever they contributed would be used for their benefit. A degree of flexibility in detail could be provided in the legislation, so that the example of communities which are progres- sive and forward-looking may stimulate others to similar action. The education cess could be related to appropriate State and local taxes such as land revenue, property taxes, etc., so as to enable different sections the community to make their contribution.
BASIC EDUCATION 14. The importance of basic education for a country which seeks to develop rapidly is now well recognised. In the first live year plan basic education programmes began to be implemented effectively for the first time. The progress made in basic education and the targets set for the second plan are indicated below:
1950-51 1955-56 1960-61
Schools 1,751 10,000 38,400
Enrolment 1,85,000 11,00,000 42,24,000
Training Schools 114 449 729
The position varies considerably in different States. Taken as a whole, the relative advance seems fairly rapid, but considering that the whole of elementary education has to be reorientated on basic lines, the process has not advanced vary far yet. In 1950-51 the number of children going to basic schools accounted for less than 1 per cent. of the total number of children in the elementary stage; the proportion increased to nearly 4 per cent. by the end of first plan and is expected to rise to 11 per cent. by 1960-61. There has been greater progress in providing facilities for training basic teachers. In order to prepare schools for conversion to the basic system, crafts and other student activities are being introduced in an increasing measure.
15. In the spread of basic education certain administrative problems have to be considered. On the administrative side, it is essential that those concerned with educational administration should be fully acquainted with the new programme and the conditions neces- sary for its fulfilment. Existing personnel should be trained. The aim should be that new entrants into educational services have had training in
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basic education. Administrative procedures will have to be revised so as to give the maximum initiative to the school and to the local community.
16. In organising training for basic teachers it is important to ensure the observance of high standards of teaching. Seminars, re- fresher courses and schemes of in-service training should also be organised. Further, post-graduate basic training colleges need to be affiliated to the universities so that those who are trained there are able to go up for higher professional training. Negotiation for the purpose with the various universities will need to be taken up. Pro- duction of literature for basic institutions and research in various problems affecting basic education are also essential. National Institute of Basic Education which has been established recently will give attention to these aspects.
17. In the spread of basic education a difficulty which often arises is its cost relatively to that of education in other elementary schools. On the basis of experience during recent years a few sugges- tions may not be out of place. In any new programme the need for economy is obvious. The productive aspect of basic education, con- sistent with the requirements of education has to be recognised and encouraged as an essential part of the scheme of basic education. From the limited experience available, it would appear that where reasonably satisfactory conditions have been provided, the results of basic education have been encouraging There is, however, a consensus of opinion that the best results will be obtained with full-fledged eight-year basic schools-or with a number of five-year basic schools feeding a central -eight-year school-instead of the five-year schools now common in most States. A number of measures calculated to improve attendance at school will need to be taken. In obtaining land and equipment for the school the contribution of the local community should be drawn upon to the maximum extent. Frequently, when agricul- tural holdings are consolidated or cooperative farming units formed or when land comes into the possession of the village community from any source, it should be possible to allot an area to the village school both for its activities and for providing it with a regular source of supplementary income. Special emphasis should be placed on the quali- ty of the articles produced. This will also facilitate their dispos- al. Assistance of local co-operatives should be sought for disposing of surplus goods not consumed by the school or by the community. So far as possible students should participate in making the craft equip- ment.
The practical value of basic education and even its financial turn can be increased by linking it up with allied programmes like agriculture, village and small-industries, cooperation, development and national extension service, etc., and thereby giving a definite place to institutions imparting basic education in the scheme of development in each district and each block. This will itself Kelp to keep basic education in step with the needs of development in other fields. To facilitate such coordination, advisory committees for basic education should include persons representing different branches of development work.