SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE
Overview 4.1 Provision of social infrastructure strives to achieve the twin objectives of Economic Equality and Social Development, to create a supportive environment for a higher rate of growth for development contributing not only to human resource development but also to holistic and harmonious socioeconomic de- velopment.
4.2 The concern with availability of 'So- cial Infrastructure' has evolved over the years from a general emphasis on basic needs of the people to special needs of the specific regions and special groups of peo- ple. A "norm" based target for social infra- structure being difficult, effort has been made to fulfil a certain level of "minimum needs". So that the poor and the weak do not suffer exclusion from the overall process of devel- opment due to market imperfections, con- scious attempts are being made to provide these minimum needs through infrastructure facilities and services in respect to the peo- ples health and nutritional status, educational status, housing, and environmental status.
4.3 Social development as it should flow from the adequate social infrastructure would therefore mean literacy, education, good health and all that goes to make good health possible like food and nutrition security, drinking water, easy availability of medical and health facilities -both preventive and cura- tive and a hygenic environment and shelter.
Indicators of Social Development 4.4 Table 4.1 which traces the development of Social Indicators includes data collected by the 1991 census and some achievements upto 1993. The information and resultant analysis of the 1991 census were not available when the Eighth Plan was formulated.
4.5 Infrastructure and facilities for medi- cal services, public health, water supply, sanitation, housing, and education have ex- panded. This is reflected by an improve- ment in the social conditions over the plans. Table 4.1 shows changes in select indicators of social development. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) nearly halved, and Female Literacy Rate more than quadrupled during the last four decades. Housing conditions in terms of drinking water, electricity and type of construction have also shown substantial Un- provement. Seen over a span of four deeades (1951-91), the improvements are notable.
4.6 However, more needs to be done. Nearly half the population is still illiterate. Even among the developing countries, position of India in regard to literacy is low. In the 15-19 age group, India's 66 per cent literacy rate was better than only 10 out of 64 developing countries in 1990. Expectation of life has im- proved in India sharply from 32.1 years In 1951 to 60.8 years in 1991. Control and management of famines and epidemics has had an important role in improving the lon- gevity of Indians. Infant mortality though has reduced to half during the last four decades, is still higher than that many in developing countries. Among 113 developing countries where infant mortality data was available for the year 1992, India ranked 77th in the coun- tries (ranked in the ascending order of In- fant Mortality Rate). The households which were covered by electricity, drinking water and sanitation facilities were about 17 per cent in the 1991 census. The percentage in urban areas was higher at 48 percent, but deprivation of 52 per cent of the households in the high density urban areas exposes them to slum conditions of habitation. (Annex 4.13),
4.7 Availability and utilisation of the exist- ing Social infrastructure varies between the economic and social groups and across re- gions. An appraisal of the plan in Social infrastructure, taking note of these variations, should review the progress made in remov- ing the disparities.
Rural Urban Differences 4.8 The differential between rural and urban areas in the indicators of social development is sharp. From the 1991 census results, the literacy rate for the urban male was 8 1.0 per cent as against 57.8 percent for the rural male. Similarly, the literacy rate for the urban female was 63.9 per cent as against, 30.3 per cent for the rural female. Infant mortality of the rural population (which constitutes 74 percent of the population of the country) was 82 per thou- sand live births as against to 45 for the urban
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Table 4.1
Provision of Social Infrastructure and Selected Indicators of Social Development
1951 1981 1991 1993
1. Crude Birth Rate (per 1000) 41.7 33.9 29.5 28.5
2. Crude Death Rate (per 1000) 22.8 12.5 9.8 9.2
3. Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000) 146.0 110.0 80.0 74.0
4. Life expectancy at birth 32.1 52.3 60.8
(years) of which 1941-51 1976-80 1986-90
4.1 Male 32.4 52.5 57.7
4.2 Female 31.7 52.1 58.1
5. Sex ratio
(Females per 1000 males) 946 934 927
6. Literacy rate 18.33 43.56 52.11
6.1 Male 27.16 56.37 63.86
6.2 Female 8.86 29.75 39.42
7. Gross enrolment as percent 43.1 80.5 101.0
to population (6-11 years)
8. Teacher-Pupil ratio 33 38 42
(primary schools)
9. No. of Medical personnel (per crore population)
9.1 Doctors 18 37 44
9.2 Nurses 5(1950) 21 32
9.3 Health visitors 0.16 1.35
10. No. of beds(all types)per 32 83 94
100 thousand population
(1990)
11. No. of Primary Health 725 5740 21641 22,441*
12.No. of Sub-Centres 51405 130958 131,318*
13.Pecentage of population
covered by water supply
13.1 Rural 31.0 73.9
13.2 Urban 77.8 83.8
14.Pecentage of population
covered by sanitation
14.1 Rural 0.5 2.45
14.2 Urban 27.0 45.93
15.Households having pucca 32.7 41.6
houses (%)
16.Households having electricity 38.2 62.3
17.Population (crore) 36.11 68.3 84.6 88.1(a)
Note: 1. Census data for 1951 & 1991 exclude J&K & for 1981 excludes Assam 2. (a) Extrapolated from report of Standing Committee of Experts on Populated Projections.
3.* As on 31.3.1992 Sources:
(1) Items 1 to 5 & 12 to 16: Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India (2) Items 6,7 : Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development. (3) items 8 to 11 :Ministry of Health
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areas in 1993 from Sample Registration Sys- tem data.
4.9 There are differentials in the availability of infrastructure for medical and public health services between the rural and urban areas. Only 31 per cent of hospitals, 48 per cent of the dispensaries and 18 per cent of the total hospital and dispensary beds are in rural ar- eas, where 74 per cent of the country's popu- lation is located. Census data show that in 1981, 27.2 per cent of medical personnel were located in rural areas. The rural popu- lation have to travel much longer distances than their urban counterparts to avail of medical facilities. Medical treatment was available within a distance of less than 2 kilo- meters for over 80 cent of cases in urban areas as against 39 per cent in rural areas. In over 20 per cent of cases, persons residing in rural areas had to travel more than 10 kilome- tres distance to avail of medical facilities. This could also be one of the reasons for higher infant mortality in rural areas than in urban. The percentage of households which used electricity for lighting according to the 1991 census was 30.54 per cent for rural house- holds as against 75.78 per cent for urban households.
Gender Disparity 4.10 According to 1991 census, 39.42 percent of the female population was literate as against 63.8 6 percent of them ale population. Similarly, educational attainment of girl students at secondary and higher levels is less than that of boy students. (Annex 4.14).
4.11 Given the fact that the fertility rate of mother declines sharply with the level of educational attainment, attempts to control population require priority to be given to female education. The States which have low female literacy (below 40 per cent), account for more than half of the country's population (Annex 4.1 1). Though the rate of growth of enrolment of girls has been higher than that of boys-, disparity still persists. Girls still account for only 45.7 per cent of the enrol- ment at, the primary stage and 37.7 per cent of at the upper primary stage. The drop-out rates of girls at the primary as well as the upper primary stage are higher than those of boys.
Inter-State variations 4.12 In addition rural urban and gen- der disparities, there are large inter-state variations. The disparities across states, (as measured by the coefficient of variation), have deteriorated in the case of health related indicators like Crude Birth Rate, Crude Death Rate and Infant Mortality rate. There has simultaneously been a reduction in the inter-state variation of other indicators like female literacy rate and housing amenities like living in pucca houses, availability of safe drinking water, use of electricity. (Table 4.2)
Variations across Income levels 4.13 Utilisation of the available social infra- structure also varies sharply between the high and low expenditure groups. While in the rural areas the availability is lower for all expenditure groups, in urban areas the dispar- ity across expenditure groups is more sharp (Annex 4. 1).
4.14 It was in this background that the Eighth Plan reiterated human development as the main focus of development. The Plan docu- ment states "Human development will be the ultimate goal of the Eighth Plan. It is towards this that employment generation, population control, literacy, education, health, drink- ing water and provision of adequate food and basic infrastructure are listed as the priori- ties."
4.15 The objectives of the Eighth Plan for provision of Social Infrastructure are:
i) Provision of safe drinking water and primary health care facilities, including immunisation, accessible to all the villages and the entire population, and complete elimination of scavenging-,
ii) Universalisation of elementary education and complete eradication of illiteracy among the people in the age group of 15 to 35 years;
iii) Containment of population growth through active people's cooperation and an ef- fective scheme of incentives and disin- centives.
4.16 At more specific levels, the goals in dif- ferent social infrastructure sectors have been set out in the respective sections. Eradication of poverty, achieving full employment and social integration do require, inter-alia, an adequate provision of social infrastructure because it is the marginal groups that are ef- fected more acutely by die deficiencies in social infrastructre. Infrastructure for devel-
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Table 4.2
Inter-State Variation In Selected Indicators of Social Development
Coefficient of variation of 14 States (1) (2)
1971 1981 1991 1993
( Per Cent )
1. Crude Birth Rate (per 1000) 14.3 13.6 18.3 19.6
2. Crude Death Rate (per 1000) 21.5 23.6 21.7 22.6
3. Infant Mortality Rate 25.9 30.6 36.5 36.5
(per 1000 live Births)
4. Female Literacy (percent) 58.5 49.6 40.3
5. Households living in pucca 34.4 32.9
houses (per cent)
6. Households having 52.2 29.0
Safe Drinking Water (percent)
7. Households 51.8 43.6
having Electricity (percent)
8. Per Capita SDP 28.1 31.7 34.3 35.9
(Rs. at current prices)
Notes (1) The 14 major states are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
(2) Derived from state-wise data in Annex 4.9
opment is a key requirement for growth, and this includes social infrastructrure like piped water supply, sanitation and sewer- age, solid waste collection and disposal, irri- gation etc.
Public provisions for Social Infrastruc-
ture 4.17 Given the gap between "need" and "sup- ply" ( Table 4.3), low ranking of India in the indicators of human development among the developing countries, the differentials across states, variation between the rural and urban areas, there is a positive role for the Govern- ment in provision and maintenance of social infrastructure.
4.18 Private investment for social infrastruc- ture has been confined to only those services availed of by the affluent sections of , e.g. specialised curative medical services by private hospitals, higher technical and medi- cal education, housing and related amenities in the Central Business Districts (CBD) ar- eas of the metropolis. The effort of public policy has been' to channelise resources di- rectly into such through incentives. For example, payments for medical insur- ance, contributions to educational institutions and savings for house construction and main- tenance, carry tax benefits. In the recent three years such incentives have been increased.
4.19 Flow of private sector resources into ele- mentary education, female education, public health services, training of weaker sections and housing for low income groups has been insignificant. Wherever, such flows have taken place it has been higher in urban areas and in states which have attained higher levels of social development. The requirement of social infrastructure of those who cannot "de- mand" these services on the strength of the purchasing power (Annex 4.1) will have to be met by the public sector.
4.20 Given their special characteristics, the social services in the public sector are rendered through the institutions managed by Govern- ment. Expenditure by governments at the centre and the states on provision of social infrastructure is about 30 per cent of govern- ments' total expenditure, equivalent to about 6 per cent of GDP. This includes both the Plan and the Non Plan expenditure. While there was a significant increase between the Sixth Plan (1980-85) and Seventh Plan (1985-90) on
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Table 4.3
GAP BETWEEN NORMATIVE LEVEL OF NEED AND SUPPLY OF
SELECTED ITEMS OF SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE
ITEMS NORMS NEED AVAILABILITY GAPS
Housing One house per household.
Rural = 11.87 crore hhds. 16.62 crore houses. @ 14.72 crore houses. Shortage of 1.9 crore
(Household size 5.49) (1991) houses
Urban = 4.75 crore hhds.
(Household size 5.08)
Education Teacher: Pupil ratio
(Elementary) + 1 :40 Primary:
25.9 lakh teachers. $ 17 lakh teachers 8.9 lakh teacher%.
Upper Primary: $ 10.8 lakh teachers. 3.9 lakh teacher%.
14.7 lakh teachers.
Accessibility of Primary 6.1 lakh schools. $ 5.7 lakh schools. 0.4 lakh schools.
schools within one K.M.
of walking distance.
Health
1. Rural Health Sub Centre One per 3000-5000 Population 1.33-2.22 Lakh 1.39 lakh
2. Rural PHC One per 20000-30000 Population 22-33 Thousand 22.52 Thousand
3. Rural Community Health One per lakh population 6660 2467 4193
Centres
4. Rural Health Worker
(a) Male One per 3000-5000 Population 1.33-2.22 lakh 0.66 lakh minimum shortage of
(b) Female One per 3000-5000 Population 1.33-2.22 lakh 1.37 lakh 0.67 lakh
5. Child Development (ICDS) Population per project 5923 projects 3907 projects as on 2016
(1 lakhs) in Rural/Tribal March 31st, 1995
areas/Urban project areas
ICDS projects covers: Welfare of childern below 6 years and expectant and lactating mothers.
It takes care of pre-school education, nutrition and health care.
6. Rural Water Supply To provide atleast 40lpcd To provide water supply 82.42% population (of 17.58% population of
of water within 9 walking to 100% population as 1991 census) covered as 1991 census) still
distance of 1.6 km or per norms. on 1.4.95. remains to he covered
elevation difference of 100 with water supply
metres in hilly sets* and facilities
additional 30 lpcd in DDP/DPAP
areas for cattle.
+ National Policy on Education, 1986. Derived from projected school going population (6-11 years & 11-14 years) : Selected Education Statistics, 1993-94: Ministry of Human Resource Development. $ Annual Report, 1994-95: Ministry of Human Resource Development. Health figures are as on 31.12.94 @ Excluding unserviceable Kucha House lped : Litres per capita per day, DDP : Desert Development Programme, DPAP : Drought Prone Area Programme
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allocation for social infrastructure by Govern- ment (as per cent of GDP), the allocation has remained nearly at the Seventh Plan level in the subsequent years (Annex 4.2). Additional allocations for social infrastructure need to be made especially in sectors like child care, health, elementary education, adult and post- literacy and open-school system, as these will broadbase more opportunities for socio-eco- nomic development and quality of life.
4.21 Non-Plan expenditure by governments is for operation of the existing social infra- structure, and Plan outlay is intended for creation of social infrastructure. Non Plan expenditure of governments (Centre and States) measured by the difference between total expenditure and plan expenditure for such infrastructure increased by about one percent of GDP between the Sixth and Sev- enth Plan. State Governments (Total of Non- Special Category States) expenditure on operation of existing social infrastructure (non plan expenditure) increased at a pace faster than the expenditure on creation of social infrastructure (Plan expenditure). This is reflected by the declining percentage of Plan expenditure as a proportion of Non Plan expenditure as for non-special category states for the period 1987-88 to 1992-93. (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4
Plan Expenditure as a proportion to Non-Plan
Expenditure on Social Infrastructure for Non-
Special Category States.
Year Per Cent
1987-88 25.3
1988-89 22.9
1989-90 23.1
1990-91 22.9
1991-92 20.8
1992-93(Revised Estimates) 21.3