APPENDIX R : PAPER ON PRACTICAL PROGRAMME FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF UNIVERSAL, FREE AND COMPULSORY PRIMARY EDUCATION IN INDIA DURING THE NEXT TEN YEARS.
Article 45 of the Constitution directs that the State (which expression includes the Central Governments, the State Governments and the Local Bodies) shall make every endeavour to introduce, within ten years from the date of the adoption of the Constitution, free and compulsory primary education up to the age of 14 years. It is worthy of note that this directive does not specify the age at. which primary education is to begin, nor does it indicate the content of primary education. As is well known, we have controversies in the country now as to whether the starting age should be 6 plus or 7 plus and as to whether all expansion of education should take place on the basic lines only. It is, however, assumed for the purposes of this note that the Constitutional directive emphasises the "free and comulsory" character of Primary education rather than its content and that it has no specific dictum regarding the age at which Primary education should begin.
Progress Between 1951 and 1961 In appendix I will be found the statistics which show the educational progress in respect of Primary education, between. 1950-51 (the year just before the introduction of the first Five-Year Plan) and 1955-56 (the last year of the first Five-Year Plan). The appendix also contains statistics of the anticipated development of Primary education during the second Five Year Plan. It will be seen therefrom that only 33.2% of the, children of the age group of 6-11 were enrolled in Primary schools in 1950-51 and that this percentage should increase to 46.2% only in 1960-61. Similarly, only 18.3% of the children of the age group of 11-14 were enrolled in schools in 1950-51 and that this percentage is expected to rise to 28.1% only by 1960-61. Obviously, this progress presents a very disappointing picture. At this rate, the directive of the Constitution may not be fulfilled even in a period of 40 to 60 years.
Causes of Slow Progress This slow progress of mass education under the first Five-Year Plan as well as the equally slow anticipated development during the second Five-Year Plan are mainly due to two reasons, viz: (1) lack of adequate funds and (2) adoption of inappropriate techniques of development. The reasons which have led to the inadequacy of funds made available for educational development are well-known and need not be discussed here. But I would be failing in my duty if I do not place on record three general considerations which would occur to every educationist in this respect. Firstly, one cannot help feeling that the administrators of the country have not sufficiently realised the urgency and significance of educational development. Secondly, I cannot help expressing my disappointment at the non-increase of allotment to education in the Second Plan. From the statistics available, it is seen that, in the First Plan, education was given Rs 169 crores or 7.4 per cent of the total available funds and that, while the allocation for education in the Second Plan has increased in amount to Rs. 320 crores, its percentage to total has equally fallen to 6.7 per cent. In the Plans of a country which desires to be a welfare State, one expects that social services like education should be given progressively large allocations for each succeeding plan and it would not have been wrong for an educationist to expect that the allocation to edu-
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cation in the Second Plan should be more than 7.4 per cent. This is an aspect of the problem which, I hope, is not too late to be considered. I would only plead with Shri Shree Ram that the total allocation to education should at least be increased by 100 crores. Thirdly, I must also point out that the distribution of the available funds between different branches of education has also been far from satisfactory. In all progressive countries, primary education receives about two thirds of total funds allocated to education. In _ country like India where Primary education has to make up for arrears of _ century or more and where the unbalance of development between Primary and Higher education is so noticeable, one expects even larger allocations to Primary education. But the Second Plan shows a very disappointing picture in this respect. In the First Plan, Primary education was given Rs. 93 crores out of a total of Rs. 169 crores or 55%. Low as this percentage was, it was at least better than that in the Second Plan where Elementary and Middle school education will get only Rs. 98 crores out of a total of Rs. 320 crores or about 30%. This shows that the emphasis on Primary education has decreased materially in the Second Plan. In my opinion, this is an aspect of allocation which needs immediate reconsideration at the hands of the Commission.
Deplorable as this inadequacy of funds is, it would not be very helpful to over-emphasise this aspect of the problem alone. In the first place, it is obvious that any increase in the allocation 'to education can only come about very slowly in proportion to the increase in the national dividend; and secondly, it is equally obvious that the country will not be able to afford, within the foreseeable future, the total amount required for the introduction of compulsory Basic education of seven years whose cost is estimated at Rs.800 crores (non-recurring)and Rs.250 crores (recurring). It would, therefore, be more practical to accept financial stringency as an inevitable condition for the next ten years and to emphasise the second cause which has led to slow development of Primary education in the past, namely, the adoption of inappropriate techniques of development. In fact, the main object of this note -is to show that if appropriate methods of educational development are adopted, it is still possible to realise the Constitutional directive during a short period of ten years, in spite of the inevitable conditions of financial stringency that obtain at present.
Bases of Reform What are these alternative techniques of development which are more appropriate to the conditions of an under developed economy and whose adoption is likely to enable us to achieve a good deal of expansion in spite of the inadequacy of funds allocated to education ? Briefly speaking, they may be stated as follows:-
(1) The highest emphasis possible should be placed on programmes of quantitative development for the next ten years.
(2) The programmes of qualitative development should not be interlinked with the quantitative development. For instance, schemes of the, type which insist that all new schools (or a certain percentage of them) must be basic schools, should not be encouraged. The target should be to open all the new schools required within a short period and to provide every village with a school. If any or all of these can be basic schools, it is welcome. But it should be very clear that the programme of opening new schools shall neither be hindered nor allowed down on the ground that they cannot be basic schools. Even a non-basic school is a great improvement in a village where no school exists.
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(3) All programmes of qualitative development, therefore, should be worked out independently and accorded a second priority for the next ten years during which time, the programmes of quantitative expansion should be pursued vigourously and completed. Thereafter, the programmes of qualitative development would receive emphasis again, and in fact, they would be the only programmes before the schools for all eternity to come.
(4) Since the available financial resources of education are limited at present and are not likely to be increased materially in the near future, every attempt should he made to reduce the total cost of Primary education by increasing the ratio of pupils per teacher. At present, this is about 34. It can be raised to 45 if the Shift system is adopted in Standards I & II and even to 50 if the Shift system can be taken up to Standard, IV. In Travancore where the Shift system has been adopted in Standards I to IV on a State-wise basis, the ratio is actually 52.
The Shift system, therefore, appears inescapable as a transitional measure in the existing financial conditions. Its bold acceptance is, therefore, strongly recommended on three grounds : (i) it will reduce the total cost of a programme of universal education by about 25 to 30 per cent; (ii) it will assist the poor parents-and they are more than 60 per cent of the total population-to keep their children at school even after they have grown up and begun to earn or assist in the family work; and (iii) it will permit the raising of teachers' salaries without putting an undue strain on the resources available or preventing expansion.
It is not claimed that the shift has no problem of its own. Issues like simplification of the curriculum, adjustment of school hours to local conditions, and several others will have to be faced if it is to be universally adopted. But these problems are neither difficult nor unsurmountable. Once the Shift system is accepted as inescapable, I have every confidence that our teachers and administratons will rise to the occasion and make it a complete success.
(5) The age-period of compulsion should be reduced to seven years instead of eight. Compulsion should begin at seven and continue till 14 moreover this period of seven years should be further divided into two stages the first stage of four years and the second of three years. Compulsory education of four years should be introduced in all areas (at least in all rural areas) of the country during the Second Plan and that of seven years should be adopted in all areas of the country in the Third Plan.
(6) Most boys of the age group of 11-14 who do not attend the schools at present are engaged in some economic activity which is indispensable to the family budget. Most of the girls in this age group are kept out of schools either because of social prejudices or because they assist in the work at home. It would be impossible to enrol these children on a whole-time basis. Even the shift won't help them materially. Hence it is strongly recommended that a system of evening or continuation classes should be organised for this group.
These suggestions look retrograde at first sight. But unless they are adopted now, no progress can ever be achieved. Let us remember that a runner who wants a long jump ahead has to run a little backwards in the first instance, and that a person who wants to raise a tall structure above the ground, has also to dig inside the earth for foundations. Hence, we must tone down our ideals for the present and achieve expansion first and when that objective is fulfilled, we should strain all our nerves to raise the standards. The more I think about it, the more convinced I am that, in spite of its paradoxical appearance, there is profound wisdom in the observation
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of Dr. Ghosh that he would be "forward" in action and "backward" in ideas, rather than the other way about.
It is a pity that the progress of Primary education has been held up in the past because the educationists and financiers have never cooperated. The former have pitched their ideals so high and asked for such fantastic amounts that the latter have not cared even to do justice to the cause. What we need now is a group of educationists who would be realistic and reasonable and a group of financiers who would have realised the urgency and significance of educational development. I do trust that, in this crucial hour in the country's development, we shall lack neither.
Targets for the Second Five-Year Plan With these fundamental assumptions, I suggest that the following targets may be attempted, in the Second Plan:-
Target No. 1: There shall be a school within a reasonable walking distance from the home of every child.
The number of towns and villages in the country is 6 lakhs. In 1955-56, we are expected to have only 2.5 lakhs of Primary schools which are estimated to serve about 1.5 lakhs of towns and villages only. In other words, about 4.5 lakhs of villages are still without any school whatsoever. This is a very sorry state of affairs and has to be remedied without delay.
To realise this objective, the following schemes are proposed:-
(1) An educational survey of the country should be immediately carried out to ascertain the number of villages already served with schools and to prepare a plan of providing all the other villages with a school in the most economic manner possible. This will take about a year and cost about Rs. 30 lakhs. But its urgency and utility are -so obvious that it should be completed as early as possible.
(ii) Independent schools should be opened in all villages with a population of 300 or more. In such plans, about 25 to 40 children will attend and the appointment of a whole-time teacher will be financially justified.
(iii) Group schools and peripatetic teachers should be appointed to meet the needs of smaller villages.
It is estimated that more than 90% of the villages could be reached in this way. The remaining villages would be too small and too scattered to make the evolution of a practical scheme of instruction impossible at this stage. But their population would be very small (about 2 to 3% of the total) and may be ignored at present.
In the absence of a survey, it is very difficult to estimate the number of teachers required for this programme. The estimates vary from 2 lakhs at the minimum to 4 lakhs at the maximum. Probably, 3 lakhs of teachers is nearer the truth. I suggest that provision should be, made for this number in the Second Plan (Rs.60 crores).
If it is not possible to provide this amount, at least Rs. 40 crores should be provided for 2 lakhs of teachers. This will enable us to provide independent Primary schools in all villages with a population of 300 (or 400) and more. In other words, about 75 per cent of the rural population will have schools at the end of the Second Plan. The smaller villages should then be provided with schools in the Third Plan.
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This programme will enrol about 60 lakhs of children (2 lakhs of teachers at 30 pupils each). It is very strongly recommended, however, that compulsion should be immediately introduced in all these small villages, especially as it would involve no additional cost in most cases. Wherever necessary. the shift system should also be adopted. That alone will raise the average to 35 and the same amount of money would bring in about 70 lakhs of pupils.
Target No. 2: Compulsory education of four years (7-11) should be introduced for boys and girls in all areas wherever Primary schools have been in existence for at least three years.
In 1961, the estimated population of the country is 41 crores. But this, about 80 % or 33 crores would have been provided with schools. At 12.5 %, we shall have 412 lakhs of children to educate. If the Shift system is adopted in standards 1 and 11 and the teacher- pupil ratio is raised to 45, we shall need 9.1 lakhs of teachers, if all these children are enrolled. But social and economic reasons, it will not be immediately possible, and we should be satisfied if the enrolment at the end of the Second Plan is about 80 % or about 330 lakhs. In other words, about 8 lakhs of teachers is all that we need. We have 7 lakhs at present. So, an additional sum of Rs. 20 crores should be provided for 1 lakh of teachers for this target.
If this proposal is accepted, we shall have eight lakh teachers in all and at 45 pupils per teacher they would educate about 360 lakhs of pupils.
In other words, targets I and II combined would require a provision of Rs. 60 crores and would enrol about 430 lakhs of childred as follows:-
8 lakhs of teachers
@ 45 pupils 360 lakhs
2 lakhs of teachers
@ 35 pupils 70 lakhs
430 lakhs
The enrolment at the Primary stage would thus rise from 240 lakhs in 1955-56 to 430 lakhs in 1960-61 or from 50% to 84%. It is worth while to struggle to do so.
Even if it is argued that the average teacher-pupil ratio would not rise so high because the system is yet new, the following would be the minimum targets reached:-
8 lakhs of teachers
@ 40 pupils 320 lakhs
2 lakhs of teachers in new
schools @ 30 pupils 60 lakhs
380 lakhs
This all works at 72% of the total population in the age-group of 6-11.
The present provision in the plan provide, I understand for 2 lakhs of teachers and can be made to include a provision of 2.5 lakhs of teachers if the amount provided for employment relief is calculated. All that. I ask is for another 50,000 teachers. But the above results are really so worth while that, I trust, the additional amount required will be given.
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Extra amount would of course be needed to provide for the allowance to teachers working under the Shift system, and also for the machinery to enforce compulsion. But these matters may be discussed and calculations made after the main basis of the scheme is accepted.
Target No. 3 : -To increase the supply of women teachers.
In the Third Plan, the main problem would be to enrol girls into schools. For that purpose, steps should be taken in the Second Plan to increase the supply of women teachers For this purpose, schemes on the following lines will have to be considered :-
(1) No separate schools for girls should be permitted in stand- ards I-II. No such new schools should be opened and even the existing schools should be amalgamated with the boys schools in the locality.
(2) The women teachers thus freed should be utilised for conducting girl's schools in standards IV or V to VII or VIII. It is at this age that separate schools are really needed for girls.
(3) Attendance grant of small amounts should be instituted for girls attending high Primary. classes in rural areas. This would increase the attendance at this level.
(4) A special scheme to aid institutions which undertake to educate adult women for a teaching career should be drawn up.
An ad hoc provision of Rs. 10 crores should be made in this plan to achieve this target. Detailed schemes would be drawn up in due course,
Target No. 4. To increase the enrolment in the age-group of 11-14 to 30% of the total population in that age-group by starting continuation classes.
In the normal course and mainly as a result of the expansion drive undertaken at the junior primary level, the enrolment in the middle stage is expected to rise to about 19 .5%. But here also, an attempt should be made to increase the teacher-pupil ratio from 25 to 30. This will mean that the existing staff of 2.1 lakhs of teachers (1.8 lakhs existing staff in 1955-56 plus 0.3 lakhs provided in the Second Plan) will take in about 63 lakhs or 23%.