        
                                          
        
              English.      Urdu.         Hindi.      Marathi.      Bengali.
        
                                          
        
        Chancellor of  Diwan-i-Khalsa. Koshadipati. Koshsdipatl. Koshadipati
        the Exchequer
        
        Epooh           Zamana.         Yug.         Yug.         Yug.
        
        Amalgam         Malgham.        Paradmish-   Paradmish-   Paradmish-
                                        ran.         ran.         ran.
        
        Analysis        Tashrih.      Vishleshana.   Vishleshana. Vishleshana.
        
        Test Tube      Imtihaninali.  Parikshana-    Parikshana-  Parikshana-
                                      nalika.        nalika.      nala.
        
        Assumption     Farziya.       Pramaya.       Pramaya.     Pramaya.

Thousands of other instances can be mentioned where the Hindi, Marathi, and Bengali terms are identical. I do not know if in Gujrati also they would not be acceptable. Urdu has gone to Arabic or Persian sources and the Urdu terms would not be understood in the areas where Hindi, Bengali, Marathi or Gujrati is spoken and written.

The principles on which the different institutions have worked in preparing their terms are as follows:-

1. The Bihar Hindustani Committee-

(a) Scientific terms should be, as far as possible, drawn from current Indian sources, commonly understood, and not directly from Sanskrit, Arabic, or Persian, or any other language.

(b) Failing, terms usually employed in scientific terminology in the West should be adapted to our requirements.

(c) The two above methods failing, words from Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian may be used with equivalents (as now used in Urdu or Persian) printed in brackets so that the learner may become familiar with both sets of terms.

2. The Vijnan Parishad, Allahabad-

(a) To find out such Hindi words as can correctly express the meaning of the European terms.

(b) Failing them, to find out such European technical terms as are already used in factories and technical institutions and firms, possibly in a modified and corrupt form.

(c) Failing these, to coin new terms derived from Sanskrit, but effort should be made to prevent these becoming difficult.

(d) If none but exceedingly difficult Sanskritic terms are available, European terms should be adopted.

3. The Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu, Aurangabad (in Dr. Abdul Haque's Preface to Farhang Istilahat-i-Ilmia)-

(a) Terms may be borrowed from all those languages which have contributed to Urdu, via., Arabic, Persian, Hindi, and Turkish.

(b) When terms are borrowed from other languages they should conform to the laws of Urdu.

(d) Such English terms as are already in use should be retained.

While scientific terms derived from Sanskrit will he intelligible to a very large proportion of Indians, it cannot be overlooked that an important section of the population will be more at home with words of Arabic or Persian origin. The attempt to compel either section to adopt one set of terms based either on Sanskrit on the one hand or on Arabic-Persian on the other will arouse bitter controversies. It is not possible that in all sciences all the terms can be derived from these sources. The attempt to confine newly-coined terms to Sanskrit or to Arabic will cause communal discord. English terms are now in use in India and will continue to be understood and used by all engaged on advanced scientific work. The adoption of these terms will prevent waste of energy and time in the attempt to invent their Indian equivalents. These English terms are practically the same in every European language and a knowledge of these enables one to follow the scientific books and journals published abroad.

For all these reasons, it is advisable to adopt English terminology in all scientific writings in all Indian languages.

ANNEXURE IV.

NOTE BY Dr. ABDUL HAQUE, SECRETARY, ANJUMAN-E-TRAQQI-E-URDU (HIND).

The subject covered by the Agenda is dealt with here in three sections. Section (1) will: specify my general attitude towards the question of scientific terminology for India. Section (II) will give a brief account of the experiments carried on till now to prepare a code of terminology, and to impart education with its aid. The last section will sum up my observations on the work so far done in this direction, and advance my views in respect of what might be done in the future.

SECTION I.

Item 1 of the Agenda requires the members of the Committee "to consider whether a common scientific terminology should be fixed for India as a whole, and, if so, whether the main and common part of such terminology should be borrowed extensively from the English terminology".

A common terminology for a sub-continent like India as a whole is possible only when it is superimposed by a powerful central authority, i.e., the English or Indian. But the march of events points to no such possibility. The British Government have made it clear that India is soon to attain Dominion Status and that its administration will have to be run by her own sons in future. The possibility of any superimposition on the part of the British being thus eliminated, the question remains whether such an imposition from within is possible. This is certainly possible if one of the two major communities of India should dominate the administration at the centre, and in the constituent units of India, so. that a language favoured by the dominant party might be chosen to form the basis for a common terminology. To every sensible observer of the prevailing situation in the land, it should be clear that an agreed constitution giving the dominant voice to one party will never be set up.

Such being the difficulties lying in the path of superimposition of a common terminology, whether foreign or Indian, for the whole of India, the question arises what is the alternative which might be followed so as to keep in check endless multiplication (if terminologies. The aim before us, then, should be to see that we evolve terminologies such as might be agreeable to the genius of as many Indian languages as possible. This being so, the question which will call for consideration is this; can we for the purpose of common terminology resolve Indian languages into the minimum number of convenient groups?

During the course of my close association with the All-India Anjumane-Taraqqi-e-Urdu for nearly thirty years, and no less close- association with the Osmania University since its very inception- institutions which have devoted themselves to imparting modern 'knowledge in arts and science through an Indian language-I have had to give deep thought to the subject of common terminology. And my firm conviction is that India would need two sets of terminologies-one serving the interests of the Aryan group of languages including Urdu, and the other the Dravidian groups, the international terminology forming part of both. I cannot, therefore, agree with Mr. Seal that every Indian language should have a separate terminology, and that the main portion of it should be bodily imported from English. Nor can I agree with him in his classification of the Indian languages into Sanskritic (covering even the Dravidian languages) and Perso-Arabic.

So far as the Aryan group is concerned, the work done through Urdu may easily form the basis or groundwork for the building up of a code of terminology common to other languages of Aryan origin--languages spoken in the Hindustan proper as well as the languages outlying it, viz., Bengali, Marathi, Gujrati, Sindhi, Punjabi, etc.

SECTION II

To understand the value of the work done through Urdu and to see how it can be utilized for larger purposes, a brief account of it may be worthy of consideration.

Old Delhi College.

The earliest attempt ever made to supply scientific terminology in Urdu text books, was undertaken in the thirties of the past century by the old Delhi College, run by European Principals of whom Mr. Batrons and Dr. Springer deserve special mention.

The principles laid down by the Translation -Society of the College for guidance in translation are set out here in the original:-

Proposed rules for the expression of English terms in Urdu translation.

1. Whenever a scientific word has no equivalent in Urdu and expresses a simple idea, as Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, etc., there is apparently no objection to its being transferred bodily into the vernacular language. The same rule applies to titles, etc., not strictly corresponding to any other titles or dignities known in Indian History such as Bishop, Duke, Judge, Earl, Collector, Magistrate, etc.

2. If the scientific word expressing a simple idea has an equivalent in Urdu the latter must be used, as Loha for Iron; Gunduck for Sulphur; Wuzeer for Minister; Tulubnama for Summons.

3. If the word be a compound one, and the two original words be English and have neither of them equivalents in Urdu, the word must be transferred bodily into the Vernacular language as Hydrochloric for instance, the words Hydrogen and Chlorine having no equivalent in Urdu*. This should not however, be considered warranting the transfers of a whole English SENTENCE into a translation, as Justice of the Peace, which should perhaps rather be expressed by Justice peace ke-Military Order of the Bath, Lushkuree Jummat Bath Malta ke- Military and religious order of Malta, Lushkuree wo, muzubee Jummat Malta ke.

4. If the word be a compound one and have no equivalent in Urdu, but be made from the words which singly have Urdu equivalents, the latter may be used in conjunction with each other, or some other equivalent translation made, as chronology, llmzemane-House of Lords, Cutchery Ameeron ke-House of Commons, Cutchery Waklaia raiake, or simply Cutchery Waklaia ke.

5. When this or the following cannot conveniently be adhered to, the foreign word should be transferred to Urdu as Hydrogen, Nitrogen.

6. If the compound word be formed from two single words one of which has an equivalent in Urdu and the other not, the Urdu compound one

* The nomenclature of Chemistry may perhaps be bodily transferred into Urdu. The Chemical elements which have Urdu names would retain them, but assume the English names in composition; as Hydro-Sulphuric, etc. The roots of that nomenclature not being numerous it would not be difficult to explain them clearly and distinctly.

G 2

100

must be made of the English and the Urdu single words, as Court of Directors, Cutchery Directoron ke-Archbishop, Bishopala.

7. Such words as Order, Class, Genus, and Species, although having in respect equivalents in Urdu might however, be transferred into that language, because the Urdu equivalents are synonyms of each other, and would constantly lead to a very objectionable confusion in distinctions highly important in the study of natural history.

8. The names of the natural families of plants* are derived each from one of the most remarkable individuals of the family or some of its common properties, and a similar rule may be followed in Urdu unless it should be found more convenient and advantageous that the distinctive names of each family should invariably be drawn from some of its special and distinctive characters.

1. The above rules might, it is hoped, prevent my great discrepancies in the translations. When speaking of a word having an equivalent in Urdu it is meant that some word similar to it in meaning is Well-known among the middle and educated classes.of the native community. If it were necessary for an equivalent to a scientific word not found in our Oriental Dictionaries, to refer to a learned Pundit or a Moulvee, it is obvious it would be better to adopt the English word, which, if equally unknown to the Urdu language, would have at least the advantage of being known to the translator, who might thus proceed in this translation without any Moulvee's or Pandit's assistance. As all, or nearly all, the science which is to be infused into Urdu must come from the English language, it is next to impossible, even if it were desirable, to prevent the introduction of many English words into it.

2. In the above, of course, are meant such words as are names of things and express simple ideas, or words formed from them, and not such derivative substantives and adjectives as are daily made from each other according to the well-known Arabic Forms.

3. On the whole English words must not be used in Hindustani translations when this can be avoided without any inconvenience, and any person who intends to translate a work on any given science should, as much as possible, provide himself with any work which may have been already published on that science, and made use of the same words in his translation which were used in that which preceded it, unless there be in any particular instance some material objection to this. Whenever an English sentence assumes as known a fact probably familiar to an Englishman, but unknown to a Native, some short explanation

*What has been said above of the nomenclature of Chemistry may apply to the great divisions of the Linnean system, but to make a complete proper Botanical language is perhaps the most difficult task to perform in the work of translation. A literal transfer of our European nomenclature and terminology into an Urdu translation would make of Botany a perfectly unintelligible chaos. The second mode alluded to in this paragraph indicating the names of the natural families of plants, appears the best as it is universally applicable, whereas the most remarkable individuals of a family in Europe are not always so in India. On the whole it is extremely desirable that some gentlemen having at least a general knowledge of Indian Botany well acquainted with Urdu should undertake-the task. Some works on Anatomy and Physiology having some years ago been translated into Urdu, the difficulty relative to the technical terms of sciences must have been already overcome in some way or the other, but how this has been done has not as yet been ascertained by the Secretary.

101

of the fact alluded to should be. given by the translator, either in a note or in the text of the translation if this can conveniently be done.

4. In general the translator must not endeavour to translate literally word for word. It is the spirit, the meaning of every sentence which it is important to transfer from one language to the other, however different the construction, or expression, of the sentence may be.

Keeping the above rules in view, the De1hi College was responsible for the compilation and the translation of about two hundred books dealing with Mathematics', Astronomy, Chemistry, Physics, Medicine, Natural History, Jurisprudence, Economics, Logic, Philosophy, Political and Constitutional History and several other subjects. The English educational authorities and scholars who paid visits to the College in those days highly appreciated this system of teaching sciences in particular through a vernacular and were pleased to record that the students of the Delhi College were as proficient as, if not more, than those who learnt those Sciences through the English language in other Colleges.

After the great disturbance of 1857, Delhi was annexed to the Punjab Province. No greater punishment could have been inflicted on that ancient city or harder blow dealt to it than the closing down of that noble institution which had created an intellectual and cultural atmosphere of a type new to India and produced some of our best minds and makers of 'Urdu in the last century, as for instance Master Ram Chandra, Nazir Ahmed, Mohammad Husain Azad, Zakaullah and others. Had this College been spared and allowed to continue its work of intellectual regeneration, it would have, assuredly, revolutionised educational thought in the country and anticipated by at least three quarters of a century the establishment of Universities like the Osmania conducting education through the medium of Indian languages. It is an irony of fate that no historian--neither a Britisher whose forefathers were responsible for its foundation, nor any son of the soil, who would have been proud of it-has ever had the kindliness to refer to it in his work.

Osmania University.

The next attempt this time more serious and determined-was the establishment of a Bureau of Translation in Hyderabad, preparatory to the inauguration of a full-fledged statutory University to impart learning in all its branches through the most widely spoken language of Urdu.

The work of the University and its results have been under the public eye for nearly a quarter of a century as admitted on all hands, the system is now no longer regarded as an experiment. Indeed it has already powerfully influenced the working of other Universities in the land; so much so that strong hopes are entertained everywhere that, sooner or later, they will all fall in line with the Osmania University and provide education to Indian children through Indian languages. A careful study of the system of terminology followed by such a University catering for students speaking different mother- tongues at home, is worth making. The principles of this system may be stated as follows:-

1. In order that a proper code of scientific terms be prepared, it is essential that collaboration should be arranged between experts in languages and experts in sciences, the object being that on the one hand the connotation of the original may be fully brought out in the translation and on the other the resultant term should be expressive of the genius of the language.

102

2. The primary principle which should be kept in view is this; the term should be a word or part of a word for Hindi, Persian or Arabic, such as is either in common use or is easily comprehensible and possessing adaptibility for grammatical manipulation in Urdu. This condition being satisfied, perfect freedom is to be allowed for interchange of suffixes and prefixes from any of the three languages and combination of two or more words from the different languages taken together.

3. Terms from English which have become part of the language by usage should be retained. In addition, terms from a European language, for which an equivalent cannot be devised so as to bring out the full significance of the original, should be bodily transplanted.

4. Terms derived from foreign proper names should be so adopted as to retain on the one hand the proper name and on the other suit the structural and grammatical peculiarities of the language.

5. Old terms which are current and which can sustain the meaning in their modem application should be retained.

6. There are in current use certain scientific terms which originally bore one conception about which subsequent researches have come to convey a different conception. In translation of such terms the equivalent should follow not the literal sense of the terms but the present sense or significance of them, in spite of the fact that in the original language the. same term is maintained.

Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu.

The work of terminology carried on by the Osmania University cannot be said to have reached any stage of finality. From the very nature of it, it will go on improving as time advances with its aim always concentrated on the need for greater simplification and greater expressiveness. In this task of simplification, it is my privilege as the life Secretary of the All-India Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu to submit that the Anjuman has unreservedly collaborated with the University at every stage. Not merely this, the Anjuman, in the interest of that wider public not directly accessible to the University, has so far compiled:-

(a) nearly 175 works dealing with different branches of learning (published).

(b) the Urdu translation of Oxford Concise English Dictionary (published),

(d) glossary of terminology in Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Astronomy, Economics, Sociology, History and Political Science (some of these still in press).

In addition to the work of above character, the Anjuman conducts among other journals, the Science quarterly which aims to popularise sciences among the Urdu speaking public. I may add that in my individual capacity I am preparing a comprehensive Urdu Lexicon for the Osmania University, some volumes of which are now ready for the press.

103

These endeavours of the Anjuman have all been directed towards supplementing the efforts of the Osmania University in evolving a more and more simplified code of terminology.

SECTION III.

What is the net result? For aught I can say the Urdu language now possesses code of terminology which with a little further simplification can easily be adopted by any of the Aryan languages which form the Indo-Aryan group mentioned above, whatever the receipt. If this were done, you would have provided for the major portion of India, nearly three-fourths, a common terminology. As for the third, the Dravidian area, a common terminology can be evolved on parallel lines. It is only in this way that a right solution of the problem might be sought. If unfortunately the advocates of Hindi should insist on a Sanskritized variation of the terminology at present available in Urdu adopted for the Indo-Aryan group of languages, I shall certainly raise no objection. In that case there will be two terminologies for the area where the Indo-Aryan languages are spoken and one for the Dravidian. In all three sets.

I am, therefore, of clear opinion that the proposal made by Mr. Seal to have a common terminology for the whole of India composed extensively or mainly of borrowings bodily imported from the English terminology0 is neither desirable nor possible. No civilized country anxious for progress has a foreign terminology slavishly incorporated into its language. Take the case of Europe. In spite of the fact that the European countries have so much in common culturally, every country has its own scientific terminology. There is no doubt that a minimum quantity of international terms has been accepted by each language as an indispensible common factor and to that extent I should be agreeable to a similar latitude for Indian languages. But the wholesale importation will be demoralising, indeed it will disfigure the languages and crush their genius. Further, the Indian languages are so constituted that if the English terminology is imported even for the sake of sheer fancy, this will not feel quite at home when derivatives have to be employed. I give below a passage which observes the lines suggested by Mr. Seal:

What is this stuff ? Is it an expression of any recognisable language? Is the genius of Urdu visible anywhere in it? Let the contents of the

104

above passage be similarly expressed in any other Indian language and it will not be difficult to see that the result will be equally interesting.

To sum up, taking everything into consideration my humble suggestion is that instead of frittering away energy in an idle pursuit to evolve a common terminology for the whole of India, whether based on English terminology or not, the sensible procedure will be to attempt two sets of terminology--one common to the Indo-Aryan group of languages, the other to the Dravidian on the lines indicated above.

105

ANNEXURE V.

NOTE BY DR. MOZAFFARUDDIN QURUAISHI, PROFESSOR AND READ OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, OSMANIA UNIVERSITY.

The question of adopting English scientific terminology as a whole was considered in all its aspects by several committees of Scientists and linguists when the work of imparting higher scientific education through the medium of an Indian language was taken up for the first time in the Osmania University. The worthy chairman of this meeting was himself responsible for initiating and guiding these discussions. After long deliberations and after weighing arguments on both sides, it was finally decided that a middle course would be the best to follow under the present circumstances. Scientific terminology admits of a fairly sharp division into two sections, international and national. The international section, covering nomenclature and notation includes the following :-

(a) Names of chemical elements and compounds Such as sodium, potassium, chlorine, aluminium, nickel, hafium, sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, etc.

(b) Names of minerals such as calcide, dolomite, hemitite, magnetite bauxite, etc.

(d) Names of units of measurement such as gram, centimetre, second, pound, foot, inch, dyne, erg., amp., volt; Walt, etc.

(e) Names of units of matter and energy, such as molecule, atom, electron, neuton, proton, quantum, photon, etc.

(f) Names of laws, theories, phenomena, effects, instruments, apparatus, machinery, etc., which are named after their discoverers or inventors, such as Boyle's law, Dhun's law, Tyndal effect, Zeeman effect, Raman effect, Bunsen burner, Solvay's process, Allenmore's cell, borromed, etc.

(g) Mathematical notation such as log, sine, cos, tan, dx, Ax.

(h) Names of classes, orders, genera and species in biology such as Dicotyledon (two seed flower) Reftilia Annaceae, Annelida, Anona, Pheritima, Squamosa, Posthuma.

This international section of terminology has been adopted by us in its English form with the following few exceptions:-

(1) Words already existing in the language such as 'loha', 'sona', 'chandi', 'neela thotha', 'Jauher', are also used along with their English' equivalents, 'Iron', Gold, Silver, Copper sulphate and atom. It may be pointed out that in European languages, too, names of elements and

106

compounds peculiar to these languages find extensive use in scientific publication. Here are a few examples:-

        
                                          
        
                  English.            French.               German.
        
                  Nitrogen.           Azote.                Stickstoff.
             
                  Lead.               Plomb.                Blei.
             
                  Sulphur.            Soufre.               Schwefel.
             
                  Tugsten.            Tungstene.            Wolfram.
             
                  Formic acid.        Acide Formique.       Ameisensaure.
             
                  Tartaric acid.      Acids pyrotartarique. Weinsaure.
        
                  Succinio acid.      Acide succinique.     Bernstainsaure.

(2) A part of the mathematical notation had to be translated in order to make it fit with the Urdu alphabet and Indian numerals. For instance is used for dx and for Ax. Some abbreviations of Arabic origin have been retained and used in place of their modern "international equivalent, as these terms were already in current use in the schools of this country before the advent of English. For instance is used for the trignometrical ratio 'sine', for 'Cos', for 'tan' and ' ' for

'Cotan'. It is well known that Arabs made Algebra an exact science and laid the foundation of analytical geometry and plane and spherical trignometary The word 'sine' is evidently derived from the latin translation (sinus) of the Arabic term ,meaning 'a bay or curve

This question has recently been reconsidered and it has been decided to recommend the adoption of the International system for Notation for Mathematics.

The other section of scientific terminology, the national section, includes the following: -

(a) Names of concepts, qualities and properties, such as matter, energy, wave, force, weight, volume, velocity, valency, chemical reactivity, equilibrium, saturation, density, solubility, surface tension, viscosity, centre of gravity, lines of force, conductivity, refractivity, specific heat, specific gravity, spectrum.

(b) Names of phenomena and processes and their adjectival and other derivatives, such as, chemical reaction, combustion, distillation, radiation, conduction, induction, dispersion, refraction, diffraction, polarisation, incubation, magnetisation, electrification, dissociation, association, magnetism, isomerism, polymerism, allotropy, electric discharge diffusion, solution, ionisation, parallax, projection, secretion, sterilisation, solution.

107

(c) Names of instruments, apparatus, tools and machinery, such as, microscope, telescope, spectroscope, spectrograph, polarimeter, furnace, clock Rheostat, viscometer, manometer, test-tube, flask, crucible, refractometer, wheel, axle, lever, refrigerator, etc.

(d) Names of mathematical figures-such as line, curve, triangle, rectangle, polygon, etc.

In this section of terminology, Urdu equivalents already existing in the language have been adopted, and where Urdu equivalents did not exist new equivalents have been coined. If Mr. Seal's suggestion for retaining most of these terms in their foreign form is followed, about 5,000 foreign words and their derivatives, at a rough estimate, will have to be imported, which is very much beyond the capacity of any Indian language to absorb and assimilate., I shall make my point clearer by taking two examples. If we adopt the word spectrum in its foreign form, we shall have to accept the following additional words in our language.

Spectra, Spectral, spectroscope, spectroscopy, Spectrometer, Spectrograph, Spectrography, Spectro-photo-meter, Spectrometery, Spectrophotometery.

If we adopt the word solution, we must also accept solutions, dissolve, solute, solvent, soluble, solubility, solvate, solvation. Such words, which denote concepts, properties and processes and their several derivatives are not uniform even in different European languages, which axe closely ;elated to one another, as the following few examples will show:-

        
                                          
        
             English.            French.                  German.
        
                                          
        
             Density.            Desnite, epaisseur.      Dichte.
        
             Weight.             Poids.                   Gewicht.
        
             Surface tension.    Tension superficielle.   Oberflache spannmg.
        
             Viscosity.          Viscosite.               Inner ereibung or                                                   
                                                          Zahigkeit.
        
             Conductivity.       Conductivite.            Leitungsvermogen.
        
             Radiation.          Radiation.               Strahlung.
        
             Horse power.        Force de ohevaux.        Pferdestarke.
        
             Reflection.         Reflexion.               Zuruokwerfung.
        
             Refraction.         Refraction.              Brechung.
        
             Acceleration.       Acceleration.            Beschleunigung.
        
             Specific gravity.   Gravite specifique.      Specifische Gewich.
        
             Specifio heat.      Chaleur specifique (or   Specifische Warms.
                                 specials).