SOCIAL WELFARE
15.1 Human resource development plays a critical role in the socio- economic development of a country. It is an investment towards improv- ing the quality of human life. although development brings economic gains to society in general, specific measures become necessary to ensure that they reach the disadvantaged and the weaker sections of the population such as women, children, the disabled, the elderly, and the destitute. The welfare and development of these weaker sections of the society largely depend upon suitable policy directions executed through appropriate programmes and strategies.
DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN 15.2 The need to bring women into the mainstream of development had been a national concern since Independence. Article 15 of the Consti- tution prohibits any discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex etc. Article 15(3), however, clarifies that this provision will not prevent the State from making any special provisions for woman for children.
15.3 In the earlier phase of Indian planning, woman's development concerns had a low profile. There were, however, some significant beginnings. A major initiative was the establishment of the Central Social Welfare Board in 1953 to promote and assist voluntary organisa- tions in the field of woman welfare, child welfare and welfare of the handicapped. Under the community development programme, Mahila Mandals were promoted and supported since the Second Plan. Some legislative measures were also undertaken to protect the interests of woman as, for instances, the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Woman and Girls Act, 1956, the Hindu Succession Act, 1956, the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 and the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961. The Third and the Fourth Plans accorded a high priority to education of woman. Measures to improve maternal and child health services, supplementary feeding for children and nursing and expectant mothers were introduced. The Fifth Plan supported economic development, employment and training for woman as the principal focus for their socio-economic development. The main approach in these Plans was generally to view woman as the benefici- aries of social services rather than as contributors to development.
15.4 The seventies brought woman to the forefront of development concerns with the publication of the Report of the Committee on Status of Woman in India, the observance of the International Woman's Year in 1975 and the preparation of a Nation Plan of Action for Woman. This decade also saw the enactment of important specific legislations like the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976. The creation of a separate Bureau of Woman's Development and the setting up of a national committee with the Prime Minister as President were intended to provide strong admin- istrative support to women's development. During the Sixth Plan, a multi-sectoral approach was adopted for woman's development and, for the first time, a coordinated picture was presented in the plan. A separate Department of Woman's Welfare was carved cut at the Centre in 1985 from the then existing Ministry of Social and Woman's Welfare to give a separate identity and to provide a nodal point on matters relating to woman's development. Legislative measures were taken to provide protection to woman against discrimination, exploitation, atrocities and violence. Various labour legislations were amended to safeguard the interests of woman and provide for their welfare.
Review of the Seventh Plan and the Annual Plans 1990-92 15.5 The Seventh Plan continued this strategy. The National Perspective Plan for Woman (1988-2000) provides directions for all-round develop- ment of woman. The Nation Commission on Self-Employed Woman and Woman in Informal Sector submitted a comprehensive report titled Shramshak- ti, analysing the problems affecting large number of woman in the informal sector and the steps needed to given them a better deal.
15.6 A significant step in the Seventh Five Year Plan in the direction of improving woman's status was identification of a number of benefi- ciary oriented programmes under various sectors of development. These programmes were regularly monitored by the concerned Ministries/De- partments and coordinated at the centre by Department of Woman and Child Development.
15.7 The number of woman beneficiaries assisted under the Integrated Rural Development Programme was 34.33 lakh in
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the Seventh Plan. The percentage of woman beneficiaries increased from 9.9 in 1985-86 to 25.6 in 1989-90. Under TRYSEM, 4.59 lakh woman were trained for self-employment in the Seventh Plan. Under both the pro- grammes, the minimum percentage of woman beneficiaries has now been raised to 40. Under Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, 30 per cent employment opportunities are reserved for woman. In 1990-91, the share of woman in employment generation under JRY was about 24 per cent. Development of Woman and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), launched in 1982-83, to increase rural woman's access to employment, skills, training, credit and other support services, covered 187 districts in 1990-91. The programme follows a group approach. Over 28,000 groups were formed in the Seventh Plan.
15.8 Efforts were also made in the Seventh Plan to enhance woman's skills in agricultural operations. Agricultural extension services under the Training and Visit System organised gender sensitisation training camps, enrolled woman contact farmers and made special ef- forts to disseminate knowledge to woman farmers. Operation Flood II and III involved rural woman in dairy development on cooperative lines by training them in various activities relating to milk production. In 1989, out of 68.85 lakh members of dairy cooperative societies, 14 per cent were woman. In Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh milk and dairy woman's cooperatives were formed. Some woman's cooperative societies were set up in fisheries sector also. Short term training courses for woman were organised in fish processing, preservation etc. Nearly 52,000 woman are expected to have benefited under the special livestock breeding programme, where a target of 10 per cent was earmarked for woman beneficiaries. Krishi Vigyan Kendras and "Lab to Land" programme also benefited woman in agriculture and allied sectors.
15.9 The Khadi and Village Industries sector took up measures to improve employment and earnings of woman. the sponsorship of ancillary industries by public sector undertakings in collaboration with State level agencies dealing with development programmes for woman, has helped to increase their employment opportunities. A separate entre- preneurs' cell has been set up in the office of the Development Com- missioner, Small Scale Industries to provide counselling to woman entrepreneurs. Development of entrepreneurship among woman is also being encouraged by Small Industries Development Organisation by organising entrepreneurs' development programmes exclusively for woman. Woman are given preference in schemes of self-employment among educated unemployed youth introduced in 1983-84. A large number of woman are not only rendering assistance in family industrial enter- prises or business but are also entering business and industry on their own.
15.10 Educational training in selected trades with high employment potential was provided to women in six regional vocational training institutes. A national training Institute for Woman was set up at NOIDA. A new scheme was taken up by the Ministry of Labour for provid- ing grant-in-aid to State governments setting up women's ITIs/wings. Seats for about 21,500 woman were provided under the scheme. Steps have been taken to expand training in new skills and non-traditional areas. The Department of Science and Technology is implementing a programme for providing opportunities for gainful employment to woman specially in rural areas to reduce drudgery in their lives and to improve sanitary and environmental conditions.
15.11 The number of woman employed in the organised sector increased from 13.7 lakh in 1962 to 35.7 lakh in 1989. this represented an increase in woman's share in employment in the organised sector from 11.3% in 1962 to 13.7% in 1989. However, the percentage of woman holding gazetted posts in 1988 was only 4.9 in Central Government. The percentage of woman in 1987 in the Indian Administrative Service was only 7.4, in the Indian foreign Service 9.9 and in the Indian Economic Service 12.9. the percentages in 1972 were 6.1, 4.9 and 4.9 respec- tively.
15.12 For educational development of woman, apart from a vigorous drive for universalisation of elementary education, retention of the girl child in school, reduction in drop out, and promotion of adult literacy, a number of special initiatives were taken. The enrollment ratio for girls in the age group 6.11 years rose from 24.61 in 1950-51 to 83.60 in 1989-90. For girls in the age group 11-14 years, the enrollment ratio rose from 4.5 in 1950-51 to 44.58 in 1989-90.
15.13 In secondary schools, girls numbered 19.61 lakhs in 1989-90 constituting 31.72 per cent of the total enrollment. In 1950-51, the proportion of girls at this level was only 16.7 per cent.
15.14 In the higher educational courses, girls constituted more than 37 per cent of the students enrolled in 1989-90. The number of girls in science courses constituted about 36.5 per cent of all students enrolled in 1989-90. During the same year, 34.48 per cent of the total students enrolled in MBBS were girls. In Engineering and
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Architecture courses girls constituted 36.5 per cent. The most popular professional course for girls is teachers training, wherein they constitute nearly 44 per cent of those enrolled.
15.15 School text books were reviewed to remove gender bias. School teachers were given re-orientation to present gender equality. The scheme of nonformal education which was introduced in the Sixth Plan for implementation in educationally backward States, was modified during the Seventh Plan to cover urban slums, hilly and tribal areas and working children. About 65,000 centres were set up by the end of 1988-89 benefiting 16 lakh girls. Special cells were set up in the Directorate of Adult Education and Resource Centres to plan and admin- ister woman's education programmes and to encourage their participa- tion. The scheme of Mahila Samekhya was launched in three States to mobilise rural woman for education.
15.16 The Sports Authority of India conducted National Sports Festival for woman. Scholarships under sports talent search scheme were awarded to woman.
15.17 Woman's Development Centres were set up in 22 universities and colleges to bring about social awareness of woman's issues and focus efforts on the development of rural woman.
15.18 For improving health and nutrition status of woman, maternal and child health services were strengthened. Under the scheme of prophy- laxis against nutritional anaemia, pregnant and nursing mothers were given a daily dose of iron and folic acid for 100 days. Camps were organised for woman to create health consciousness among them. Train- ing of untrained dais was continued to ensure safe delivery. As part of ante-natal care, the coverage of woman by vaccination against tetanus has improved substantially. The Universal Immunisation Pro- gramme which aims at universal coverage of pregnant woman and infants was extended to all the districts in the country. Special centres were set up to impart nutrition education to mothers through home visits by multipurpose workers. Mass education and media activities were geared up to promote and create awareness against early marriage. The message of family planning, the desirability of delayed motherhood, and spac- ing of births was promoted vigorously.
15.19 For tacking the problem of violence against woman, including domestic violence, amendments to existing laws were carried out. The cruelty on woman, inflicted by her husband or his relatives was made a legal offence. The legislative provisions relating to rape were amend- ed to accord better protection to woman victims. The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 was passed to prevent the pernicious practice of commission of sati and its glorification.
15.20 A number of schemes supplemental to the general development programmes were implemented by the Department of Woman and Child Development. The important role of voluntary organisations in woman's development was recognised. Grants were given to them to promote and support woman's development and encourage them to participate in new problem areas. Under the scheme of condensed courses of education of the Central Social Welfare Board, 1,100 courses were sanctioned in 1990-91 to benefit about 27,500 woman. This brought the cumulative total of courses sanctioned since its inception in 1958 to 16,330. To provide safe accommodation at reasonable rents to working woman, construction of 597 hostels with a capacity of 38,127 seats for work- ing woman was sanctioned between 1972-73 and March 1991. In 1985-86, a scheme to provide support to training and employment of woman (STEP) was launched. Woman's Development Corporations were set up in 11 states and one Union Territory to promote economic activities, orga- nise training and generate employment. The Central Social Welfare Board continued the scheme of assisting voluntary organisations to set up production units, thereby providing work and wage to poor woman. More than 10,000 such units have been sanctioned between 1958 and March 1991. Programmes for educating woman of their rights were orga- nised. To increase woman's participation in development and to help them to organise themselves, awareness generation camps were conduct- ed.
Situation Analysis 15.21 The efforts made during the various development plans have brought about perceptible improvement in the general socio-economic situation of woman. Significant gains in respect of woman's health status have been achieved. Expectancy of life for females at birth which was 31.6 years in 1951 was estimated to rise to 59.1 years in 1986-91. Number of females for every 1,000 males having consistently declined from 972 in 1901 to 930 in 1971, increased slightly in 1981 to 934 but has dipped again to 929 in 1991. The infant mortality rate declined from 129
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in 1970 to 91 in 1989 and, more importantly, the sex differential which was quite high in the seventies has now been bridged. However, the 0-4 age specific mortality rate, even though it has significantly declined from 53.0 in 1970 to 33.3 in 1988, continues to show higher female mortality. The maternal mortality rate continues to be uncom- fortably high. Age specific death rates for 1988 indicate higher death rate for females upto the age of 35 years. This differential is indic- ative of the continued neglect of the female child's health and nutri- tion needs, her early marriage, high fertility, poverty and inadequate access to health care.
15.22 Though there has been an increase in the age at marriage of girls, the proportion of married girls in the age group 15-19 is still very high according to the 1981 census. Teenage mothers face higher risks in pregnancy and related health problems compared to those above 20 years of age. The marital fertility rate in the age group 20-29 years is very high, adversely affecting the woman's health and nutri- tion status. Most pregnant woman from the poorer sections of society continue to suffer from anaemia. Underweight, toxaemia, bleeding during pregnancy, puerperal sepsis and under-nourishment are widely prevalent. Birth of low weight babies and high infant and maternal mortality are consequences of these factors.
15.23 In the field of education, the position is still not satisfacto- ry. The 1991 Census data show that for the population aged 7 years and above, the percentage of female literates is only 39.42 compared to 29.75 in 1981. There is also considerable inter-States variation. Kerala, for instance, had a literacy rate of 86.93 per cent in 1991 of females above seven, as compared to 20.84 per cent in Rajasthan, 23.10 per cent in Bihar, 26.02 per cent in Uttar Pradesh and 28.39 per cent in Madhya Pradesh. While the higher decadal growth rate of female literacy (66 per cent) as compared to male literacy (43 per cent) provides some consolation, the large demographic base has resulted in 197 million illiterate females among 7+ age group -- an indication of the massive dimension of the problem of female illiteracy. This limits their achievements in the field of employment, training, utilisation of health facilities and exercise of their legal rights and is a cause of their continuing exploitation. Illiteracy among women is also negatively related to fertility rates and infant and child mortality rates.
15.24 The unemployment rate for females, according to the criterion of usual principal status, was 3.52 per cent in rural areas and 8.77 per cent in urban areas in 1987-88 as compared to 1.41 per cent and 6.90 per cent respectively in 1983. The trend in increase in the incidence of open unemployment was stronger in the case of women than of men. Also, the difference between the usual status and the daily status unemployment rate are much larger in the case of woman than of men implying that under-employment constitutes a much higher proportion of the overall employment in the case of women. The estimated backlog of unemployment among woman in 1990 by the criterion of usual status is 3.96 million.
15.25 The 1991 census reported 91.397 million female workers (exclud- ing Jammu and Kashmir), of whom 66.189 million were reported as main workers and 25.208 million as marginal workers. The percentage of female main workers to total main workers was 23.19 per cent. It was much lower in the urban areas. During the decade 1981-91, female workers in India increased by 43.26 per cent. The female work force participation rate was 22.69 in 1991 as compared to 19.77 in 1981. There is considerable inter-State variation in female work participa- tion rate, Sikkim reporting 52.74 per cent as compared to only 6.78 per cent in Punjab. Work participation rate for females is higher in the rural areas (27.20%) than in the urban areas (9.74%). The distri- bution of rural female main workers shows that 38.58 per cent were cultivators, 48.83 per cent agricultural labourers and 12.59 per cent other workers.
15.26 The 1991 census took special care to ensure that woman's partic- ipation in work is not left out and woman headed households are not under-enumerated. It is difficult to say to what extent the increase in work force participation rate is a reflection of these endeavours. The contribution of women to the economy continues to remain grossly under-reported due to certain conceptual, methodological and percep- tion problems reflecting a gender bias since economic value is not assigned to unpaid household work and various kinds of subsistence activities. Home based production activities and unpaid family work also tend to be grossly under-reported, specially if this is of an intermittent character.
15.27 The overwhelming majority of woman are engaged in the informal sector which not only provides low returns but is characterised by virtual non-access to credit, technology, training and other facili- ties. Woman have still not been recognised as producers in their own right. A large number of woman employed as casual labourers in con- struction and other industries do not get the prescribed minimum wages, nor are the stipulated minimum hours of
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work adhered to. The traditional economic activities, which provide employment to women, have suffered in competition with the more ad- vanced technologies. Home based women workers hardly ever get the protective coverage of labour laws. The present crisis of fuel and water has increased further the burden on women. There are about 30 per cent rural households headed by women who bear all burden of earning and caring for the families and suffer on account of lack of access to means of production and ownership of land and other proper- ty.