PART I: COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNMENTS OF INDIA
1947 1. OVERSEAS SCHOLARSHIP COMMITTEE, 1947 Report : New Delhi, Ministry of Education, 1947
Pp. 15, Bureau of Education, Pamphlet No. 62
Appointment The Committee was appointed by the Hon'ble Minister for Education in the year 1947 to enquire into the progress and scope of the Overseas Scholarship Scheme which was initiated in 1945, and to make recommendations for effective improvements.
Chairman: DR. B. C. Roy
Terms of Reference A. To consider whether, in the light of the experience gained since the scheme was initiated in 1945, the award of Government Scholarship is serving the purpose for which it was established and whether, having reference to the prospects of their being absorbed in suitable employment and of facilities for training becoming available in India, the number of scholars to be sent abroad in 1948 and subsequent years should be increased or reduced and whether the range of subjects should be enlarged. If so, to what extent;
B. To consider further what avenues of study in the different branches are available or may be available in India if the existing institutions in the country are developed with suitable help from the Government;
C. To consider what modifications, if any, may be desirable in the existing arrangements for inviting applications selecting candidates, placing them in training institutions abroad, and generally supervising their welfare while overseas;
D. To consider what arrangement should be made in this country to ensure that scholars who have successfully completed their courses abroad are absorbed without delay into suitable employment on their return;
E. To consider what steps should be taken to coordinate the Overseas Scholarship Scheme with any existing arrangements by other Government Departments or by any University for sending persons abroad for advanced training.
Summary of Recommendations 1. As hardly any of the scholars sent abroad under the Overseas Scholarship Scheme has returned to India, it is felt that it is still too early to indicate whether or not this Scheme has succeeded in achieving its aim. But it will be seen from observations made above that the operation of the Scheme can be greatly improved if effect is given to our recommendations. In observing this we, however, recognize the fact that the Overseas Scholarship Scheme has so far worked under abnormal conditions due to World War II and that the Ministry of Education have had to surmount enormous difficulties which arose out of the War during the last three years.
2. The proposals we have made, if followed, would reduce the possibility of any person coming back after training abroad, not being absorbed in suitable employment.
3. It is difficult for us with the information at our disposal to give any categorical answer as to the extent to which the requisite facilities for training in India in the subjects for which scholarships have been given (or will be given) will become available in India either in 1948 or in the near future. As we have indicated above, the main objective of the Scheme should be provision of personnel for the upgrading of the existing institutions and the starting of the new ones. This will, in time, reduce the total
2 COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS ON INDIAN EDUCATION
number of scholars to be sent abroad. We would ask the Ministry of Education to make proper enquiries as to the conditions of the existing institutions and the possibility of opening new ones. These enquiries should include the facilities now obtaining in the Universities and in technical and teaching institutions in the country.
4. It is not possible for the Committee within the short period of time at its disposal, to give definite opinion as to the extent to which study in the different branches may be available in India if the existing institutions in the country were developed with suitable help from the Government. This question can only be answered if the enquiries suggested in paragraph (3) above have been made and the findings are put before the Committee. In this connection it is understood that information of this type is also being collected by the Scientific Manpower Committee.
5. We have indicated certain modifications which are ,desirable in the existing arrangements for inviting applications, selecting candidates, and placing them in training institutions abroad, and generally supervising their welfare.
6. The Ministry of Education should get in touch with the Universities and other teaching institutions in order to find out to what extent they would coordinate and cooperate with the Overseas Scholarship Scheme for sending persons abroad for advanced training so that overlapping of effort and wastage might be avoided. As far as the Departments of the Central and Provincial Governments are concerned, we have already stated that all Overseas Scholarships should be administered by one agency except in the case of the Ministry of Labour's scheme.
7. The Government asked us whether we were in a Position to indicate the desirability of extending or curtailing the scope of the Overseas Scholarship Scheme. Bearing in mind the real aim of the Scheme and assuming that the methods of choosing scholars which have been explained fully in paragraphs 7, 8 and 16 are put into effective operation, we are of opinion that the total number of scholarships may with advantage be reduced progressively in the course of the next five years to about half of that awarded now. The money so saved might be utilized for giving opportunities to students in existing Indian institutions to hear and be taught by eminent foreign scholars. Experience during the last two years has shown that while the top men in any country cannot be spared for long periods, most of them are willing and able to come out to India for a few months or even a year. Courses of lectures at Universities and research institutions by eminent foreigners invited by the Ministry of Education on the advice of the institutions concerned would be of inestimable value not only in imparting knowledge on the subjects which may not be very advanced in India but in raising the general level of teaching and education in the country. Indeed, we are of the opinion that it may be desirable to appoint a special committee to devise machinery for putting this suggestion into operation as a regular feature of our higher educational system, and although such a project would be outside the scope of this Committee its materialization would eventually require further modifications in the methods of operating the Overseas Scholarship Scheme.
8. We have carefully considered the present system of providing of scholarship for overseas training on the basis of the Home Ministry's circular regarding representation of communities in service. In view of the fact, however, that the scholars sponsored by the Government would be persons who on return are to be the leaders of the scientific and educational development of the country, we are definitely of opinion that merit alone should be the basis on which scholarships should be awarded. Instructions may, however, be given to the Selection Boards to give preference to candidates belonging to a community which is educationally backward in cases where two or more candidates are available possessing roughly equal qualifications and ability. If this point of view is accepted by the Government of India and the Ministry of Education, then corresponding instructions should be issued to the Provincial Governments, the Universities and Industry, to be followed in choosing scholars sponsored by these bodies.
1948 2. COMMITTEE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA, 1948 Report : New Delhi, Ministry of Education, 1948
Pp. 11, Bureau of Education, Pamphlet No. 52
Appointment The Committee was appointed by the Government of India in 1948 in pursuance of the recommendations of the Central Advisory Board of Education.
COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA 3
Chairman: DR. TARA CHAND.
(In the absence of the Educational Adviser Prof. Humayun Kabir, Joint Educational Adviser was to act as Chairman.)
Terms of Reference A. To examine the aims and objects of Secondary Education as defined in the Report of the Central Advisory Board of Education on Post-War Education;
B. To determine the period of and gradations in Secondary Education;
C. To consider the place of the national language and English in Secondary Education;
D. To consider the different types of Secondary Schools to be established and whether they should be unilateral or multilateral;
E. To consider the procedure to be adopted for selecting pupils for Secondary Education;
F. To consider the relation of Secondary Education to Basic Education and University Education;
G. To consider the nature of the examination to be held at the end of the Secondary stage and how it could be utilized for administration to Universities;
H. To consider the steps to be taken for training an adequate number of teachers with the qualifications necessary and the conditions of their service;
I. To consider the short and long-term measures necessary for giving effect to the proposed system of Secondary Education including methods of instruction, examinations, control and administration and building and equipment;
J. To consider the special steps to be taken for the growth of leadership both for the Armed Forces and for the civil life; and K. To consider the financial implications of the proposed system of Secondary Education.
Summary of Recommendations 1. Admission to the degree course should be preceded by a course of Primary and Secondary Education for at least 12 years.
2. Of the above 12 years, five years should be spent at the Junior Basic stage, three years at the Senior Basic or pre-Secondary and four years at the Secondary stage.
3. The teaching of the Federal language should he started at the end of the Junior Basic stage and should be compulsory throughout the pre-Secondary stage, but may be optional thereafter.
4. English may be an optional subject at the Senior Basic stage and should be compulsory throughout the pre-Secondary and Secondary stages, so long as it remains the medium of instruction in the Universities.
5. The Federal language should become a compulsory subject at the Secondary stage when English ceases to be the medium of instruction in the Universities.
6. Secondary schools should be ordinarily of the multilateral type but where the local circumstances demand, unilateral schools should not be discouraged.
7. There should be one public examination at the end of the Secondary stage; the Universities may, for admission purposes, lay down such conditions as they deem fit.
8. The pay and conditions of service of teachers should be the same as recommended by the C. A. B. of Education. The scales of pay should be revised in the light of the changes that have recently taken place.
9. Trained Graduates can take charge of the teaching in the first two years of the Secondary stage but Trained M. A.s should teach in the last two years.
10. The period of training should not be less than one year and after every five years there should be a refresher course.
11. Education should be one of the subjects in the University Course of studies.
12. Provincial Boards should be set up to advise Provincial Educational Authorities on problems connected with Secondary Education.
13. There should be All India Council at the Centre to act as a coordinate body for the proposed Provincial Boards.
14. Youth Movements, Scout Movements, etc., should be encouraged in all schools.
15. A number of Public Schools may be established to foster the growth of leadership among pupils. Admission to such schools should be governed by merit alone. There should also be provision for scholarships and free places up to 50% of available seats in such schools.
1948 3. COMMITTEE ON THE WAYS AND MEANS OF FINANCING EDUCATION
DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA, 1948 Report : Delhi, Manager of Publications, 1950
Pp. 78, Bureau of Education, Pamphlet No. 64
Appointment The Committee was appointed by the Government of India in 1948, to examine the existing financial resources and the programme for educational development for all Provinces and States and to make suggestions to ensure that educational development may not be held up for want of funds.
Chairman : SHRI B. G. KHER
Terms of Reference A. To consider in the light of present conditions the finance (recurring and non-recurring) required for the different stages of a comprehensive system of education in India;
B. To consider the ways and means of raising the necessary finances by means of any or all of the following methods :
(i) Allocation of sources of revenue between the Central and Provincial Governments under the new Constitution; scope and extent of grants from the Central Revenue :
(a) to Provincial Governments;
(b) for Central All India Schemes of Development;
(c) to Universities and other All India Institutions;
(ii) Levy of an Education Cess : Its feasibility and details of its levy, administration and distribution;
(iii) Educational Loans : Purposes for which educational loans may be raised and the terms on which they should be raised and applied.
C. To consider any other feasible suggestions for raising the finances for educational development programme.
Summary of Recommendations 1. The State must undertake the responsibility of providing at least Junior Basic Education for everybody without, however, detriment to existing facilities for Secondary and Higher Education. Special attention should be given to the provision of such higher studies as will be necessary for increasing the industrial and agricultural potential of the country.
2. The Provinces should aim at introducing universal compulsory education for the children of 6-11 age-group within a period of ten years but if financial conditions compel, the programme may be extended over a larger period but in no circumstances should it be given up.
3. The basic minimum salary of trained Basic School teachers should be Rs. 40 per mensem, and should on no account be reduced.
4. In view of the present emergency, the Committee, with great reluctance, agrees that only for five years, the teacher-pupil ratio may be 1 : 40 instead of 1 : 30, though from the educational point of view, this change would be most undesirable. The ratio of 1 : 30 should be restored earlier, if possible, but in any case the position must be reviewed at the end of five years.
5. In urban areas, where conditions justify, the same school buildings should be used for two shifts provided different teachers are employed in each shift.
6. Some increase in the fees in the post-compulsory stage of education, i.e., Senior Basic, Pre-Secondary and above, may be permitted, provided a substantial number of free places are available to meritorious students in straightened circumstances. (Acharya Narendra Deo did not agree.)
7. The Government may enact suitable legislation for ensuring that an adequate percentage of the income of all charitable trusts is allocated for expenditure on education provided that the Government may exempt certain specified types of trust, e.g., a medical trust, etc., from the operation of such law.
8. Students after passing their Matriculation or equivalent examination should, subject to such conditions as may be laid down, be required to serve as teachers for Adult Education for a period of at least six months and the Government may enact necessary legislation for the purpose. (Shri R. P. Masani did not agree.)
9. Voluntary efforts should be encouraged for meeting the capital and recurring cost of education and voluntary organisations should be induced to run educational institutions with such assistance from the Government as may be feasible.
COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNMENT 5
10. Wherever conditions permit, loans should be raised for meeting the capital cost or such part thereof as may be necessary.
11. A fixed percentage of Central and Provincial Revenues-about 10% of the Central and 20% of the Provincial-should be earmarked for education by the respective Governments. (The Hon'ble Mr. N. R. Sarkar did not agree. See Appendix `D'.)
12. About 70% of the expenditure on education should be borne by the Local Bodies and Provinces and the remaining 30% by the Centre.
13. All contributions for education approved by the Provincial or Central Government, should be exempted from income-tax.
14. The expenditure incurred on education by industrial or business concerns should also, if approved by the Provincial or Central Government, be treated as establishment expenses for the purpose of income-tax.
1948 4. INDIAN UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1948 Report : Delhi, Manager of Publications, 1949
2 v. charts
Appointment The Commission was appointed under a Resolution of the Government of India, Ministry of Education, No. 55-5/47-D/3 dated November 4, 1948, to report on Indian University Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit present and future requirements of the country.
Chairman: DR. S. RADHAKRISHNAN
Terms of Reference To consider and make recommendations in regard to:
A. The aims and objects of University Education and research in India;
B. The changes considered necessary and desirable in the Constitution, Control, Functions and Jurisdiction of Universities in India and their relations with Governments, Central and Provincial;
C. The Finance of Universities;
D. The maintenance of the highest standards of teaching and examination in the Universities and colleges under their control;
E. The course of study in the Universities with special reference to the maintenance of a sound balance between the Humanities and Sciences and between Pure Science and Technological Training and the duration of such courses;
F. The standards of admission to university courses of study with reference to the desirability of an independent University Entrance Examination and the avoidance of unfair discriminations which militate against Fundamental Rights 23 (2);
G. The medium of instruction in the Universities;
H. The provisions for advanced study in Indian Culture, History, Literature, Languages, Philosophy and Fine Arts;
I. The need for more Universities on a regional or other basis;
J. The organization of advanced research in all branches of knowledge in the Universities and institutes of higher research in a well-coordinated fashion avoiding waste of efforts and resources;
K. Religious instruction in the Universities;
L. The special problems of Banaras Hindu University, Aligarh Muslim University, Delhi University and other institutions of an all- India character;
M. The qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privileges and functions of teachers and the encouragement of original research by teachers;
N. The discipline of students, hostels and the organization of tutorial work and any other matter which is germane and essential to a complete and comprehensive enquiry into all aspects of University education and advanced research in India.
Summary of Recommendations 1. That the ordinary amenities and decencies of life should be provided for women in colleges originally planned for men, but in which women are being admitted in increasing numbers.
2. That there should be no curtailment in educational opportunities for women, but rather a great increase.
3. That there should be intelligent educational gui-
6 COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS ON INDIAN EDUCATION
dance, by qualified men and women, to help women, to get a clearer view of their real educational interest, to the end that they shall not try to imitate men, but shall desire as good an education as men get. Women's and men's education should have many elements in common, but should not in general be identical in all respects, as is usually the case today.
4. That women students in general should be helped to see their normal places in a normal society, both as citizens and as women and to prepare for it, and college programmes should be so designed that it will be possible for them to do so.
5. That through educational counsel and by example the prevailing prejudice against study of Home Economics and Home Management should be overcome.
6. That standards of courtesy and social responsibility should be emphasized on the part of men in mixed colleges.
7. That where new colleges are established to serve both men and women students, they should be truly coeducational institutions, with as much thought and consideration given to the life needs of women as to those of men. Except as colleges come into existence there are no valid criteria for comparing segregated education with co-education.
8. That women teachers should be paid the same salaries as men teachers for equal work.
Separate Schools between the Age of 13 and 18 The University Education Commission was of the view that there seems to be a definite preponderance of opinion that from the thirteenth or fourteenth year of age until about the eighteenth, separate schools for boys and girls are desirable. The Commission felt that it was not wholly clear whether this opinion was chiefly based on custom or upon experience. The Commission cited the following :
One of India's prominent educator states: "The modern trend is for equality of opportunity for women in all spheres, and it cannot be arrested. There should be no distinctions of any kind of women from men, after the matriculation stage."
On the other hand, many, probably a majority of those who commented, favour separate colleges for women when that is feasible though not to the extent of denying women educational opportunity by excluding them from existing colleges organized primarily for men.
Some of the arguments given are that a woman cannot develop her personality in a men's college; that there is no need for women to undergo the nervous strain of examinations; that women's education should be more in keeping with the temperament and needs of women as wives and mothers; and that over-crowding is more serious for women than for men. "A pleasing feature of colleges for women has been the intimate relations of students land teachers." Some of the arguments have greater weight in the absence of truly co-educational colleges where the needs of men and women would be given equal weight in designing the programme.
Co-education at the College Level As the age of entry to degree colleges would, on our recommendation, be approximately 18, college education may be co- educational as it is at present in many medical colleges. Separate institutions at this level would demand an unjustified increase in expense. To maintain separate institutions for men and women side by side, duplicating equipment, even when it is very inadequate, would be an undue tax upon limited financial resources. Separate women's colleges commonly have poorer buildings, poorer equipment, and less able teachers. So far as possible, coeducational institutions should be encouraged at the degree level.
Scales for University Teachers The University Education Commission recommended:
1. That the importance of a teacher and his responsibility be recognized.
2. That conditions in universities which are suffering from lack of finances and consequent demoralization be greatly improved.
3. That there be four classes of teachers-Professors. Readers, Lecturers and Instructors.
4. That promotions from one category to another be solely on grounds of merit.
5. That each University should have some Research, Fellows.
6. That the scales of salaries for University teachers be:
Professors Rs. 900-50-1,350
Readers Rs. 600-30-900
Lecturers Rs. 300-25-600
Instructors
or Fellows Rs. 250
Research
Fellows Rs. 250-25-500
7. That the scales of salaries for affiliated colleges. with no postgraduate classes be :
Lecturers Rs. 200-15-320-20-400
Senior Posts Rs. 400-25-600
(two in each college)
Principals Rs. 600-45-800
COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA 7
That for colleges which have postgraduate classes, the grades be :
Lecturers Rs. 200-15-310-20-400-25-500
Senior Posts Rs. 500-25-800
(two in each college)
Principals Rs. 800-40-1000
8. That care be taken for the selection of proper teachers.
9. That the proportion of junior posts (Lecturers and Instructors) to senior ones (Professors and Readers) be roughly 2.
10. That the age of retirement be ordinarily 60 years but extension be allowed up to 64 in the case of a Professor.
11. That conditions regarding Provident Fund, Leave and Hours of Work be definitely laid down.
Finance The Commission recommended:
1. That the State should recognize its responsibility for the financing of higher education.
2. That the aid to private colleges be for buildings and euipment as also for the recurring expenditure, the latter to be on a uniform basis, say, half of the present teachers' salaries and one- third of other approved expenditure.
3. That steps be taken to amend income-tax laws to encourage donations for educational purposes.
4. That additional grants be made to colleges and universities in order to enable them to give effect to our recommendations.
5. That the Government should contribute an additional annual amount of about Rs. 10 crores for the development of University education during the next quinquennium.
6. That the University Grants Commission be setup for allocating grants.