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the organisation of two specific programmes : (1) the public sector (and other commercial or industrial undertakings) should be persuaded to make all their employees literate; and (2) literacy classes should be organized by teachers and students under the National Service Scheme. Nothing was done about the first recommendation and very little about the second.
4.11 One point may be mentioned. During this period, the programme of adult and continuation education was developed in a number of universities and a University Adult Education Association was established. This programme, however, was not mentioned in the policy statement and grew, thanks to a few enthusiastic leaders, in spite of the policy Statement rather than because of it.
4.12 All things considered, adult education is another area where the policies of the earlier period (1947-65) were continued and the existence of the National Policy on Education (1968) did not make any difference to the situation on the ground.
Expansion of Secondary and Higher Education 4.13 If the cause of elementary and adult education suffered be- cause of a lack of strong public demand and adequate political support, the case of secondary and higher education was exactly the opposite. The public demand for the expansion of secondary and higher education and the political support for it, which was already strong between 1950 and 1965, became even stronger during the period under review.
4.14 It was shown in Chapter II that, between 1950 and 1965, very high priority had been given to the programme of expanding secondary and higher education. At the low levels of expansion reached in 1950, this was also justified. But the justification did not hold equally good in 1965-66 when considerable expansion had already taken place and when educated unemployment had increased to such levels as to cause serious concern. The Education Commission had therefore recommended a policy of selective admissions at the higher secondary and university stages Which, as we saw in Chapter III, was not accepted; and the National Policy on Education (1968) made three specific recommendations in this regard, viz. (1) secondary (in higher) education is a major instrument of social change and transformation and should therefore be expeditiously extended to areas and classes which have been denied them in the past-a statement which was interpreted in practice to mean that the old policy of unplanned and uncontrolled expansion, with open-door access to secon-
136
dary and higher education, should continue; (2) considerable care should be taken in establishing new universities; and (3) the number of students to be admitted to a college or university department should be regulated on the basis of facilities available. In short, all that was done was to continue the earlier emphasis on expansion of secondary and higher education with some minor modifications. Consequently, there was very large expansion of secondary and higher education between 1965-66 and 1977-78 as the following data will show.
(1) Secondary Schools: The number of secondary schools increased from 7,288 in 1950-51 to 27,477 in 1965-66 or at the rate of 1346 per year. Between 1965-66 and 1977-78, they increased further to 44,579 or at the rate of 1,425 a year. Hardly any attention was paid to the recommendations of the Commission regarding careful planning and location of new secondary schools.
(2) Enrolments in classes IX-XI/XII : Between 1950-51 and 1965- 66 enrolments in classes IX-XI/XII had increased from 1,220 million to 5.040 million or at the rate of 225 thousand per year. These enrolments increased further to 7.420 million (or 18.3 per cent of the age-group 14-17) in 1975-76. The estimated figures for 1977-78 were 9.150 million (or 21.2 per cent for the age-group). This implies an average annual increase of 343 thousand.
(3) Inspite of all the financial difficulties, therefore, the rate of expansion of secondary schools and their enrolments increased (and not decreased) during the period under review. Of course, a small part of it must have reached the areas and classes which were denied these opportunities in the past. But in an open-door policy geared to social pressures and market demands, the lion's share of this expansion had obviously gone to the upper and middle classes and to the urban and advanced rural areas.
(4) Expenditure : The direct expenditure on secondary education rose considerably during the period under review. The main reason for this was the improvement in teachers' salaries which increased the annual average cost per student in secondary education (as shown earlier in elementary education as well).
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Average Number of Average Annual Cost
Students per Teacher per student in
Secondary Schools
Rs.
1950-51 25 72.9
1960-61 25 91.7
1965-66 25 111.1
1975-76 25 257.3
Since the rate of expansion also increased, there was a further in-crease in direct expenditure on education and its share in total educational expenditure also increased.
Direct Expenditure on Secondary Schools
(Rs. millions)
1965-66 1,376.926
(22.1)
1975-76 4,935.622
(23.5)
With the tremendous expansion that thus occurred, there was an adverse effect on standards, an unprecedented increase in the number of unemployed matriculates and a severe increase in the pressures on university admissions.
In higher education also, the over-all developments were similar to those at the secondary stage.
(1) The expansion in institutions of higher education was as follows:
1965-66 1975-76
1. Universities 64 101
2. Institutions deemed as Universities 8 9
3. Institutions of National Importance 8 9
4. Boards of High School and Intermediate
Examinations 28 43
5. Research Institutions 39 47
6. Colleges of General Education 1,673 3,667
7. Colleges of Professional Education 2,775 3,276
8. Colleges of other Education 1,253 1,405
Total 5,848 8,557
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In spite of the directive of the Policy Statement that great care should be taken in establishing new universities and in spite of an amendment of the UGC Act which laid down that a university established without the prior concurrence of the UGC and the Government of India will not be eligible to receive grants from the UGC, as many as 5 new universities were established in these ten years as against 45 universities established in the 18 years between 1917 and 1965. Similarly, the increase in the number of colleges of general education (the institution most in demand) was about 200 per year during the period under review, the corresponding figure between 1950-51 and 1965-66 being 78 only. As at the secondary stage, there was hardly any attempt to plan carefully the location of new colleges. It must be pointed out however that, in recent years, there has been some slowing down of this expansion because of the serious financial difficulties in which the State Governments are finding themselves. But there is also no sign yet of any willingness to adopt a rational policy to control the establishment of new institutions.
(2) The enrolments in 'higher education increased very greatly during the period under review. This will be more evident if we consider the data for general education '.where most of the expansion has taken place.
1950-51 1965-66 1975-76
1. Pre-university- - 278,310 554,473
2. Intermediate 221,337 345,332 950,356
3. Graduate 86,668 625,907 1,408,744
4. Post-graduate 16,528 71,212 178,613
5. Research 1,190 6,851 13,898
6. Diploma - 3,579 8,994
Total 325,723 1,331,191 3,113,078
It will be seen that the annual increase in total enrolment was 67,031 between 1950-51 and 1965-66. During the next ten years, the annual increase has been 178,189 or more than 2.5 times.
In view of the adoption of the new pattern which transfers the enrolment at the plus two stage to secondary stage, a better picture of the situation would be available if we consider separately the enrolments at the graduate, post-graduate and research stages only. These were 104,386 in 1950-51, 703,970 in 1965-66 (showing an annual increase of 39,972) and 1,601,255 in 1975-76 (showing an annual increase of 89,729). This
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shows that the annual increase in enrolments during the period under review has been about 2.25 times that between 1950 and 1965. It may also be stated that, in recent years, there has been some slowing down in the growth of enrolments due to economic or other reasons, but there is not much of an attempt to regulate enrolments. Even the directive of the National Policy on Education (1968) that the number of students to be admitted to a college should be fixed with reference to facilities available is more observed in breach than in fulfilment, especially in colleges of Arts and Commerce.
(3) Expenditure : There was inevitably a very large increase in the expenditure on higher education due to revision of teachers' salaries and expansion.
Direct/Expenditure in Rs. millions
1965-66 1975-76
1. Universities 320.537 995,642
(5.1) (4.7)
2. Deemed Universities 31.674 124,519
(0.5) (0.6)
3. Institutions of National 37.349 222,476
Importance (0.6) (1.0)
4. Board of Examinations 48.316 203,524
(0.8) (1.0)
5. Research Institutions 18.234 36.066
(0.3) (0.2)
6. Colleges of General Education 383.357 1,756,386
(6.2) (8.2)
7. Colleges of Professional 466.547 1,508,334
Education (7.5) (7.1)
1. Colleges for Other Education 12,128 31,038
(0.2) (0.1)
Total Higher Education 1,318,062 4,877,985
(21.2) (23.2)
As may be easily anticipated by the data on expansion, the increase in expenditure was very large in colleges of general education. In professional education, the establishment of new institutions was slowed down
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due to increase in unemployment of engineers. The remarkable increase in the institutions of national importance (like the IITs) also deserves special notice.
4.15 It will thus be seen that the policies of uncontrolled expansion of secondary and higher education have continued to dominate the scene since 1947 and the National Policy on Education (1968) made no meaningful change in them. Needless to say, the consequences of this expansion on standards and the size of the problem of educated unemployment have been very serious. The question of regulation of the expansion of institutions and enrolments in higher (and secondary) education can continue to be ignored only at great peril to educational and national development. It will therefore need serious attention from all concerned at a very early date.
The 10+2+3 Pattern 4.16 The obsession with the pattern of. school and college classes which began with the Sargent Report (1944) had dominated, as shown in Chapter II, the earlier period between 1947 and 1965. This obsession continued after 1965 also and, as the Education Commission pointed out, there was an unfortunate general inclination to equate the national pattern of school and college classes with the national education system itself. There was, however, one difference made by the National Policy on Education (1968) : it put an end to the confusion caused by the contradictory recommendations of the University Education Commission and the Secondary Education Commission and laid down a clear-cut policy, viz.
-it is advantageous to have the uniform pattern of 10+2+3 ;
-the plus two stage may be in schools or in colleges ; and
-if necessary, there may be a pass course of two years and an honours course of three years for the first degree.
All that had to be done was to go ahead and implement this pattern in all the States and Union territories.
4.17 Because of the public demand, the implementation of this recommendation started very soon in spite of the fact that the Centre had refused to provide any special assistance for the purpose. As may be easily imagined, the first moves were made by fifteen-year States who did not have to increase the total duration. Andhra Pradesh was the first State to come forward for implementation because it had two different patterns inherited as a result of re-organization of States (one from the old Andhra State and the other from the old Hyderabad State). The same
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reason led to initiative in Karnataka and Maharashtra also. Of course personal factors such as interest shown by individual Education Ministers were also responsible. By 1972, the reform was definitely under way in the fifteen-year States, although its pace was rather slow. The fourteen year States however remained indifferent, if not hostile, and took no initiatives.
4.18 It was at this stage that Professor S. Nurul Hasan decided that some positive action by the Centre was called for. He wanted to support the programme on these main grounds; it would reduce the expansion of higher education, help in improving its standards, and also reduce the over-all recurring costs of education in the long run (i.e. the plus two as part of school would always cost less than as a part of university education). The strategy he adopted was threefold : (1) to implement the reform in Delhi and all other Union territories and also in organisations like the Central Schools so that the bonafides of the Central Government are established; (2) to pursue the matter vigorously with the fifteen-year States where the problem was comparatively easier; and (3) to press the fourteen-years States into some action. He succeeded in the first two of his objectives and brought the programme almost to a point of no return. But he could not do anything about the third objective and by and large, the fourteen-year States could not decide to launch the programme. But Professor Nurul Hasan's idea was that if a lead is given by the Delhi Union Territory, the fourteen-year States would follow suit more readily.
4.19 By 1977-78, the position regarding the pattern was as follows :
1. New pattern fully adopted 1. Kerala
2. Andhra Pradesh
3. Karnataka
4. Maharashtra
5. Goa, Daman & Diu
6. Lakshadweep
2. Firm decision taken to adopt the 1. Assam (1976)
new pattern (and the year in which 2. Gujarat (1976)
the matriculation (or SSLC) exami- 3. Jammu & Kashmir (1976)
nation under the new pattern was 4. Tripura (1976)
held) 5. West Bengal (1976)
6.Dadra & Nagar Haveli
(1976)
7. Sikkim (1977)
8. A.& N. Islands (1977)
9. Arunachal Pradesh
(1977)
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10. Delhi (1977)
11. Tamil Nadu (1978)
12. Chandigarh (1978)
3. Decision taken in principle to adopt 1. Manipur (1980)
the new pattern (and the year in 2. Orissa (1980)
which the matriculation or SSLC 3. Punjab (1980)
examination was to be held) 4. Rajasthan (1980)
5. Haryana (1980)
6. Himachal Pradesh
(1980)
7. Bihar (1981)
8. Nagaland (1982)
4. No decision taken as yet. 1. Meghalaya
2. Mizoram
3. Madhya Pradesh
4. Uttar Pradesh
N. B. Pondicherry follows the pattern of the surrounding States for its three different areas, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
It will be seen that all the 15-year States and the Union Territories have decided to fall in line with the policy. Among the fourteen-year States only J. and K., Tripura and West Bengal had taken the plunge. The remaining 14-year States were either considering the matter or hostile. This is really the hard core of the problem for which a solution has to be found.
4.20 This is one area of educational planning where the National Policy on Education (1968) made a significant difference to the situation, especially because the then Union Education Minister, Professor S. Nurul Hasan, felt that it was his personal responsibility to implement the National Policy in the Union Territories and to use his good offices to persuade the States to follow suit.
Teachers 4.21 The National Policy on Education (1968) has made three points about teachers, viz., (1) improvement in their remuneration; *(2) protection' of their academic freedom; and (3) improvement of their professional training.