496
School Education in India
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
20. Tripura 44.97 18.23 13.18 15.83 6.10 0.01 0.01 1.66
21. Uttar 66.67 12.30 9.00 5.32 5.38 0.02 0.01 0.03
Pradesh
22. West Bengal 52.16 11.49 15.26 11.54 7.59 0.01 0.01 1.94
23. Andaman and 48.15 20.52 13.35 7.05 9.56 0.05 0.14 1.39
Nicobar Islands
24. Arunachal 68.82 2.29 17.51 7.10 3.34 0.04 0.00 0.92
Pradesh
25. Chandigarh 42.11 12.25 12.32 9.90 16.25 0.32 0.82 6.03
26. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
27. Delhi 49.10 14.37 12.31 9.22 10.96 0.27 0.09 3.70
28. Goa, Daman 2.79 15.96 15.44 8.81 5.49 0.29 0.10 1.11
and Diu
29. Lakshadweep
30. Mizoram
31.Pondicherry 53.40 18.12 16.02 7.75 4.17 0.02 0.00 0.53
All INDIA 57.86 13.65 13.01 8.41 5.75 0.06 0.11 1.16
It is found that the situation in most of the states lies close to the national average. However, the performance of Kerala is noteworthy where the distribution of population by different educational levels shows a lesser degree of skewedness. It may be further noted that although the state has the distinction of having the highest literacy rate, the proportion of graduates is comparatively lower than that in many other states characterized by low literacy rate. This is particularly true for the urban segment of Kerala population.
Spatial Patterns
Cultivators Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of the bulk of population in India. Apart from the direct contribution of agriculture to the national income, millions of urban folk are sustained by agriculture with the provision of foodgrains, besides raw materials for the industry. However, there are vast inter-regional disparities in the levels of agricultural development. A farmer's modernizing agriculture depends on the financial resources at his disposal as well as his familiarity with the new technological inputs. It may be assumed that education makes him capable of coping with a given situation more effectively. The impact of education might be reflected in agricultural productivity as educated farmers are likely to become a crucial ingredient of dynamic agriculture.
The educational level of the cultivators is generally very low as is evident from the fact that 67.05 per cent of them are illiterate and only 10.64 per cent are literate without any educational level. The proportion of cultivators educated up to the primary stage is only 14.35 per cent. The overall district-level position is presented in Table 8.7 (Appendix 8.1).
The districts with very high levels arc clustered in Kerala as well as in West Bengal. There are 58 districts in which the levels are high. These districts form clusters in Punjab, the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh, Upper Ganga. -Yamuna Doab, northern Bihar, the deltaic region of West Bengal, coastal Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, central Tamil Nadu, and coastal Karnataka. Evidently, these regions are by far the most developed parts of the Country agriculturally (Fig. 8.1).
Utility 497
Table 8.7
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS
OF CULTIVATORS-1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 475.79 Very High 28
53.75 - 475.79 High 58
231.73 - 353.75 Medium 140
Below 231.73 Low 131
The educational levels are low in 131 districts incorporating Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the hilly and terai regions of Uttar Pradesh, parts of Rajasthan, the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh and western Gujarat. Significantly, these happen to be agriculturally backward.
Agricultural Labourers Agricultural labourers are by and large illiterate. However, a small section of the population of agricultural labourers has been induced in the educational process. It is evident from the fact that 84.03 per cent of them are illiterate. The population of literates without educational level is as low as 6.16 per cent. Their low level of education is also evident from the weighted index (Table 8.8; Appendix 8.2).
Table 8.8
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF
AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS
1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 388.42 Very High 37
323.64 - 388.42 High 09
208-36 - 323.64 Medium 269
Below 147.25 Low 236
It is evident from Fig. 8.2 that agricultural labourers are characterized by a low level of education in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, western Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh (excluding Gwalior plateau), eastern Uttar Pradesh, parts of Bihar, and the Telangana region of Andhra. On the other hand, pockets of districts With high level of education arc to be found in Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh, deltaic West Bengal, coastal Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.
Workers in Activities allied to Agriculture The proportion of workers engaged in activities allied to agriculture is low - only 2.38 per cent. About 8 per cent of them are literate and about 11 per cent are, educated up to the
498
School Education in India
primary level. Their low level of education is further evident from the weighted indices (Table 8.9; Appendix 8.3).
Table 8.9
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL
LEVELS OF WORKERS IN ACTIVITIES ALLIED TO AGRICULTURE
1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 584.22 Very High 19
412.39 - 584.22 High 66
240.56 - 412.39 Medium 152
Below 240.56 Low 120
Fig. 8.3 shows the spatial features of distribution. The districts with very high and high levels of education do not reveal any geographical pattern, except that prominent clusters are seen in Himachal Pradesh, deltaic West Bengal and parts of Maharasthra. On the other hand, the districts with low educational levels are to be found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Workers in Mining and Quarrying Mining and quarrying activities account for only 0.51 per cent of workers. Their spatial distribution is highly uneven. By and large, this sector of economy employs uneducated and unskilled labourers. This is evident from the fact that 64.82 per cent of the workforce is illiterate. However, they are managed by technically skilled workers- their proportion being determined by the nature of the mining establishments (Table 8.10; Appendix 8.4).
Table 8.10
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL
LEVELS OF WORKERS IN MINING AND QUARRYING
1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 805.72 Very High 32
529.91 805.72 High 38
254.10 529.91 Medium 141
Below 254.10 Low 139
No workers in Mining 7
and Quarrying
While the situation is very poor in a major part of the country, high educational levels are associated with the iron bearing zone of Bihar as well as with the bauxite zone in Madhya Pradesh. It may be noted that the areas of high educational levels broadly correspond with the areas of large-scale mining activity.
Utility 499
Workers in Household Industry The level of education among the workers engaged in the household industry is considerably low, which is evident from the fact that as much as 56.41 per cent of the workforce is illiterate. However, there are significant inter-district variations as is evident from Table 8.11 (Appendix 8.5).
Table 8.11
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL
LEVELS OF WORKERS IN HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRY
1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 546.15 Very High 17
413.46 - 546.15 High 10
280.77 - 413.46 Medium 138
Below 280.77 Low 132
Evidently the educational attainments of workers engaged in this sector continue to be low in a major part of the country. Fig. 8.5 reveals that the districts falling under the highest category are concentrated in the Ganga delta and the Konkan coast. The districts characterized by high level of educational development are to be found on the West Coast, as well as in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, West Bengal and the north-east. On the other end of the scale are the districts which fall under the low, category. They are in Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, the northern and the eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Baghelkhand, the Chhatisgarh and the Malwa regions of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa highlands and the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh.
Workers in Industry other than Household Maximization of industrial output is closely linked with the efficiency and skill formation among the industrial workers. Therefore in a situation where the industrial workers are at disparate levels of skill formation in different regions of the country, it is quite likely that the areas which have attained a high level of skills among the workers will show a higher output. This point acquires much significance in view of the peculiar characteristics of the industrial development in the country. The growth of the industrial sector in India is characterized by a high degree of concentration in a few enclaves of development.
If educational level is taken as a proxy of skill formation, it is found that 34.47 per cent of workers are illiterate. However, there are significant inter-district variations (Table 8.12; Appendix 8.6).
Fig. 8.6 reveals that the areas with high level of education among the workers correspond with industrial nodes. It is noted that the industrial workers in the hill districts of Uttar Pradesh and in Andhra Pradesh have generally low levels of education.
500
Table 8.12
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS OF
WORKERS IN INDUSTRY OTHER THAN HOUSEHOLD
1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 809.55 Very High 28
638.66 - 809.55 High 52
467.77 - 638.66 Medium 162
Below 467.77 Low 115
Workers in Construction Construction constitutes a small sector of Indian economy as only 1.23 per cent of workers were reportedly engaged in this sector. In 1971 about one-half, 52.52 per cent of the workforce engaged in this sector, was reported to be illiterate and only 12 per cent were literate. However, the situation varied significantly from district to district (Table 8.13; Appendix 8.7).
Table 8.13
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL
LEVELS OF WORKERS IN CONSTRUCTION
1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 784.56 Very High 36
589.43 - 784.56 High 54
394.30 - 589.43 Medium 141
Below 394.30 Low 126
The districts characterized by high level of education are to be found in parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and the states in the north-cast (Fig.8.7)
Workers in Trade and Commerce Workers in this sector of economy account for 5.50 per cent of the total workforce. Table 8.14 presents the frequency distribution of districts according to the educational levels of workers in trade and commerce.
While no discernible spatial pattern emerges from Fig. 8.8, it may be noted that the districts with low educational levels constitute two segements--one in Uttar Pradesh and the other in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
Utility 501
Table 8.14
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL
LEVELS OF WORKERS IN TRADE AND COMMERCE
-1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 960 Very, High 36
804 -960 High 78
648 -804 Medium 166
Below 648 Low 95
Workers in Transport, Storage and Communication This sector of economy accounts for only 2.44 per cent of all the workers. They are distributed in such a way that sharp inter-regional variations become evident (Table 8.15; Appendix 8.9).
Table 8.15
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS
OF WORKERS IN TRANSPORT, STORAGE AND COMMUNICATIONS
-1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 958.17 Very High 21
774.30 - 958.17 High 86
590.43 - 774.30 Medium 152
Below 590.43 Low 97
No workers in this sector 1
The districts with high educational levels show fragmented patterns. Educational levels are low in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka (Fig. 8.9).
Workers in other Services Workers engaged in other services account for 8.74 per cent of all the workers. The educational attainment of these workers reflects, in a way the overall educational development of the region concerned. About 29 per cent of the workforce was found illiterate. More than 10 per cent of the workforce had attained the graduation level or even above it. Inter-district variations in the overall educational levels are presented in Table 8.16 (Appendix 8.10).
Fig. 8.10 shows that the districts with high educational levels form clusters along the West Coast and in parts of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Educational levels are
502 School Education in India
very low in a belt extending over Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and the interior Karnataka.
Table 8.16
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS
OF WORKERS IN OTHER SERVICES-1971
Weighted Index Level of Education Number of Districts
Above 1284.03 Very High 17
1088.33 - 1284.03 High 87
892.03 - 1088.33 Medium 147
Below 892.03 Low 106
SUMMING UP The above study shows that the educational levels of workers are generally low. The incidence of illiteracy is very high, particularly in the two key sectors of agriculture and industry. There is ample scope for improving the situation through systematic planned intervention.
Educational Levels of General Population The educational levels of the general population in India continue to be a matter of concern. Despite phenomenal expansion of educational facilities in India since Independence, the educational levels of the masses continue to be low as is evident from Table 8.17.
Table 8.17
PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION EDUCATED BEYOND THE PRIMARY LEVEL
1971
Rural Males 22.34
Rural Females 7.98
Urban Males 45.82
Urban Females 15.30
It is evident that women, particularly in rural areas, are lagging behind in educational development. Even the mate population in the rural areas does not present an encouraging picture. They are, however, all-India averages which conceal the reality prevailing at the grassroot levels. For example, it is noted that in 108 districts more than 72.32 per cent males in rural areas are illiterate (Appendix 8.1 1). Of these, 71 are in the states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. The situation improves slightly in the urban areas as the illiterate population in 97 districts account for more than 45.07 per cent of the
utility 503
population (Appendix 8.12). Significantly 65 of these districts are in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Females in the rural areas present a disheartening situation as the proportion of the illiterate population is above 92.65 per cent in 134 districts (Appendix 8.13). More than two-thirds of the urban women are illiterate in as many as 118 districts. Of these 82 are in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Inter-district variations are equally significant in the case of literates without any educational level (Appendices 8.15, 8.16, 8.17, 8.18). In the following paragraphs an attempt has been made to present some of the important spatial features of the pattern of educational level of the general population of India.