CONCLUSION
THE PRESENT STUDY brings out the fact that the educational development in India is characterized by glaring regional disparities. It is highly disquietening to note that the educationally developed regions continue to march forward with a rapid rate leaving behind the lagging regions. The challenge should be met by a forward looking policy of reducing the regional disparities. The main conclusions of this study may be recapitulated here:
1 . It has been observed that accessibility to schools in terms of both the population coverage and the overall mean distances is characterized by significant inter-district variations. These variations arise from the random criteria adopted in the locational. planning for schools. However, the present situation can be improved only through effective policy intervention. The study highlights the role of the physical and the social factors in determining the pattern of accessibility to schools. Likewise, the habitations predominantly populated by the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes are at relative disadvantage in comparison with other habitations. The situation is the same in educationally developed areas of the country. Thus both the physical and the social factors play their role in determining the pattern of accessibility. The study further reveals that the hilly districts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, as well as the districts in the north-east, the dry region of Rajasthan and the mid- Indian tribal belt suffer from poor accessibility. On the other hand, the northern plain as well as the coastal districts generally show a high degree of accessibility. 2. The study reveals that there are significant inter- district variations in the availability of schools both in the rural and the urban areas. These variations are understandable in view of the large size of the country and differences in the physical setting and in the cultural and social milieu. They a] so reflect the disparities in the development of school education. Evidently, if schools are not there, the spread of education will be seriously hampered. However, it may be noted that the availability, in a way, also reflects the demand for schools, which in itself is determined by economic conditions, social attitudes towards education and awareness of the parents. The spatial variations in the availability of schools cut at the root of the objective of universalization of elementary education. It has been noted that availability of schools is higher in the urban areas than in the rural areas at the higher levels of school education. This shows the in-built urban bias of the educational system. However, there are significant regional variations in this respect. Availability is generally high in the areas where the density of population is low. Low availability, on the other hand, is a feature of the regions having a high density of population. But the density of population is not the only explanation for these variations. The study further shows that the availability of schooling facility is the first necessary condition for the universalization of education. The present distortions in the availability of schools will continue unless proper planning is done to minimize the regional imbalance. This is, a task which cannot be postponed any longer.
Conclusion 559
3. Despite all the efforts made for expansion of education in the country during the last 39 years, it has to be admitted that we have failed miserably. Even the objective of universalization of elementary education remains a far cry. This is not to deny that there has been a significant expansion of education. The areas which enjoyed the benefit of an early start in educational development as well as the areas characterized by rapid economic transformation have performed better than the regions which have been traditionally backward. It has been observed that the spread of education among women and the Scheduled Castes and The Scheduled Tribes has been very impressive since Independence. It contrasts with the general neglect of these segments of population before Independence. Education of the girls in India since Independence, though initially it was at a low level, has shown impressive progress subsequently. Despite this, the female enrolment and literacy rates remain lower than those for the males. The alarming gap between the education of boys and girls, which widens further at the higher stages of schooling as a consequence of high drop-out rates, is symptomatic of the schooling as a consequence of high drop-out rates, is symptomatic of the malady. The fact that the girls in the socially deprived groups lag behind the girls in the general population is indicative of the differential impact of educational programmes for women. Similarly, when one compares the present status of education among the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes with the situation in the pre- Independence period, one is impressed by the great strides made. However, when one observes that literacy among the Scheduled Caste females in the rural areas of the country is as low as 8.45 per cent and that for the tribal females it is 6.81 per cent, the achievements are belittled. The explanation lies partly with the educational system. But the major explanatory factor is the state of rural economy itself which fails to release a major chunk of the child population from the daily chores of economic life and thus debars them from availing themselves of the benefits of education. Perhaps the solution lies in a new model of schools wherein the school will go to the working population. Or, perhaps other means of education will have to be found out to bring this section of population within the ambit of education. Then there are other constraints of our social system. It has been observed that the benefits of educational programmes have been shared disproportionately by the privileged and the disadvantaged sections of population. The former have taken a bigger piece of the cake thus augmenting their privileged position. In the Indian situation where the population is at disparate levels of social development, nurtured by historical process, such a pattern of educational development will have to be checked so that the underprivileged get more than their due share in order to overcome the constraints imposed on them. The failure of educational system can be explained by the continuing compartmentalization of work and education. The model we have followed is based on two premises (i) education without work and (ii) work without education. The existing distortions can be checked only by doing away with this model. 4. While quantitative expansion is important as the nation is committed to taking education to the underprivileged, due attention should also be paid to improve the quality of education. The study leads to the conclusion that so far as the quality of education is concerned, the situation is far from happy. A large number of schools do not have proper buildings; the teacher-pupil ratio is unfavourable in a large part of the country; trained teachers
560 School Education in India
continue to be scarce in certain regions, and in some parts of the country a large number of teaching posts remain unfilled. Moreover, the basic amenities continue to be inadequate or pitiably short of the needs. The following points may be emphasised: (a) A little less than 10 per cent of the primary schools are run in the open and have no buildings as such. (b) About 40 per cent of the primary schools do not have even the blackboards. (c) 72 per cent of the primary schools do not have libraries. (d) About 62 per cent of the primary schools in the rural areas do not have drinking water facilities. (e) Only II per cent of the primary schools in the rural areas have urinal and lavatory facilities. One wonders how one can think of qualitative improvement in the absence of such basic amenities. If the quality of education is to be improved, a two-pronged effort will have to be made: (i) to re-design the system in terms of content and teaching methods, and (ii) to provide basic amenities to the schools. It may be noted that even the Kothari Commission (1964-66) emphasized the need of raising the efficiency of the system by revamping it. Quantitative expansion will be of value only if it is supported by quality improvement programmes. 5. The high drop-out rates at the elementary stage indicate that the system is too weak to retain the children in schools even at the initial stages of learning. This is corroborated by the structure of enrolment as well as the educational pyramids. It also indicates that the linkages between the different stages of schooling are feeble. Kerala and Chandigarh are notable exceptions to the situation prevailing in the, country in general. 6. The analysis of the inequitous development of education among the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes and the nonscheduled population, on the one hand, and among the males and the females and the rural and the urban segments of population on the other, raises a number of issues. It is abundantly clear that the policy measures adopted so far to take education to the socially backward communities, particularly in the rural areas, have not delivered the goods. The failure may be due to the incapacity of the administrators who are entrusted with the task of implementation, or the general lack of social consciousness among the masses who do not see any special meaning in involving their children in the process of learning. On the contrary, they may find it as an unnecessary, and avoidable, distruction for their children, who otherwise may be productive to the family. The study reveals that while the deprivation of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is of the highest order, uneducability is not confined to these groups only. In fact, there are meaningful regional expressions of social under-development In the characteristically backward regions the general population is hardly distinguishable from the low castes or the tribes in their deprivation.
7. The analysis reveals that despite all-round efforts to make education a viable input in economic development, the situation is far from satisfactory. This is not to say that education is not capable of meeting the challenge, but the 'state of art' is such that the perceived objeceives are difficult to achieve. What can be more puzzling than the fact that about 63 per cent of the workers are illiterate. About two-thirds of the cultivators, who constitute the backbone of Indian agriculture, are also illiterate. Even in the manufacturing sector about one-third of the workers are illiterate and only 2.83 per cent
561 Conclusion
have reached the level of graduation,
The analysis reveals a broad correspondence between the areas with low education levels of the work force and the backward areas of the country. This provides scope for inducing the process of educational development on a priority basis in those regions of the country which are characteristically backward. It has been observed that education of girls is a vexed problem. There are over-arching social and economic factors which inhibit the uniform spread of education among the female children. It is therefore necessary to evolve a new strategy to raise the educational levels of the girls. Obviously, the backward areas need greater care and more systematic intervention. In this study an attempt has been made to identify the districts backward in respect of education. The exercise is based on computing the composite index of educational development for each district of the country. The methodology involved has been explained in the introductory chapter. Districts with varying levels of educational development (Fig. 9.9) are presented below:
Table 9.1
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRICTS CLASSIFIED BY LEVELS OF
EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Sl. State/Union Very High Moderate Low Very Total
No. Territory High Low
1. Andhra Pradesh - - 6 17 - 23
2. Assam - 1 9 - - 10
3. Bihar - 1 17 13 - 31
4. Gujarat 3 9 7 - - 19
5. Haryana - 2 10 - - 12
6. Himachal Pradesh 2 4 5 1 - 12
7. Jammu and Kashmir - 7 6 1 - 14
8. Karnataka - 2 13 4 - 19
9. Kerala 7 5 - - - 12
10. Madhya Pradesh - - 7 38 - 45
11. Maharashtra 1 6 15 4 - 26
12. Manipur 1 4 1 - - 6
13. Meghalaya 1 3 1 - - 5
14. Nagaland 3 2 2 - - 7
15. Orissa - - 7 6 - 13
16. Punjab 5 4 3 - - 12
17. Rajasthan - - - 25 1 26
18. Sikkim - 1 2 1 - 4
19. Tamil Nadu - 4 12 - - 16
20. Tripura - 1 2 - - 3
21. Uttar Pradesh - 2 17 35 2 56
22. West Bengal - 3 7 6 - 16
23. Andaman and Nicobar - 1 1 - - 2
9 Islands
24. Arunachal Pradesh - - 2 7 - 9
25. Chandigarh 1 - - - - 1
26. Dadra and Nagar Haveli - - 1 - - 1
27. Delhi 1 - - - - 1
28. Goa, Daman and Diu - 2 1 - - 3
29. Lakshadweep 1 - - - - 1
30. Mizoram 3 - - - - 3
31. Pondicherry 1 3 - - - 4
562
School Education in India
Table 9.1
DISTRICTS CLASSIFIED BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS
Levels of Districts State/Union
Educational Territory
development
1 2 3
Very High Gandhinagar, Ahmedabad, Kheda Lahul Gujarat
and Spiti, Kinnaur
Himachal Pradesh
Cannanore, Trichur, Ernakulam, Kottayam,
Alleppy, Quilon, Trivandrum Kerala
Sangli Maharashtra
Manipur East Manipur
West Khasi Hills Meghalaya
Wokha, Zunheboto, Mokokchung Nagaland
Ludhiana, Hoshiarpur, Rupnagar Punjab
Chandigarh Chandigarh
Delhi Delhi
Lakshadweep Lakshadweep
Aizawl, Lunglei, Chhimtuipui Mizoram
Pondicherry Pondicherry
High Sibsagar Assam
Patna Bihar
Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Sabar Kantha,
Mahesana, Vadodara, Bharuch, Surat, Gujarat
Valsad, The Dangs
Sonipat, Rohtak Haryana
Kangra, Hamirpur, Una, Bilaspur Himachal Pradesh
Jammu, Srinagar, Badgam, Pulwama,
Anantnag, Doda, Ladakh Jammu and Kashmir
Dakshin Kannad, Uttar Kannad Karnataka
Wayanad, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palghat,
Idukki Kerala
Greater Bombay, Satara, Pune,
Amravati, Wardha, Nagpur Maharashtra
Manipur West, Manipur South,
Tengnoupal, Manipur Central Manipur
Jaintia Hills, East Khasi Hills, East
Garo Hills Meghalaya
Kohima, Tuensang Nagaland
Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Patiala, Faridkot Punjab
Sikkim North Sikkim
Madras, Nilgiri, Tirunelveli, Kanya
kumari Tamil Nadu
West Tripura Tripura
Dehradun, Garhwal Uttar Pradesh
Calcutta, Haora, Hugh West Bengal
Nicobar Island Andaman and
Nicobar Island
Goa, Daman Goa, Daman and Diu
Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam Pondicherry
Moderate Fast Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna,
Guntur, Prakasham, Nellore Andhra Pradesh
Cachar, North Cachar Hills,
Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang, Nowgong,
Karbi Assam
Anglong Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh
Nalanda, Bhojpur, Saran, Siwan,
Gopalganj, Purbi Champaran, Sitamarhi, Bihar
Muzaffarpur, Vaishali, Begusarai,
Samastipur, Darbhanga, Madhubani,
Bhagalpur, Santhal Pargana, Dhanbad,
Ranchi
Jamnagar, Surendranagar, Amreli,
Junagarh, Kachchh, Banaskantha, Panch Gujarat
Mahals
Conclusion 563
1 2 3
Ambala , Kurukshetra Karnal, Jind,
Faridabad, Gurgaon, Haryana
Mahendragarh, Bhiwani, Hisar, Sirsa
Chamba Mandi, Kulu, Solan, Sirmaur Himanchal Pradesh
Kathuha, Rajauri, Punch, Baramula,
Kupwara, Kargil Jammu and Kashmir
Bangalore, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya
Kodagu, Hassan, Chikmaglur, karnataka
Shimoga, Chitradurga, Bellary,
Dharwad, Belgaum, Bijapur
Bhind, Rewa, Indore, Narsimhapur,
Seoni, Jabalpur, Durg Madhya Pradesh
Thana, Kulaba, Ratnagiri, Kolhapur,
Nasik,
Dhule, Jalgaon, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra
Solapur, Osmanabad, Buldana, Akola,
Yavatmal, Bhandara, Chadrapur
Manipur North Manipur
West Garo Hills Maghalaya
Phek, Mon Nagaland
Sundergarh, Keonjhar, Mayurbhunj,
Baleshwar, Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Puri Orissa
Firozpur, Sangrur, Bhatinda Punjab
Sikkim East, Sikkim South Sikkim
Chengalpattu, North Arcot, South Arcot,
Dharmapuri, Salem, Periyar, Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli,
Thanjavur, Pudukkottai,
Ramanathapuram
North Tripura, South Tripura Tripura
Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Tehn Garhwal,
Pithoragarh, Almora, Nainital, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh
Ghaziabad, Mainpuri, Farrukhabad, Etawah,
Kanpur, Gorakhpur, Azamgarh,
Jaunpur, Ballia, Varanasi
Murshidabad, Nadia, 24 Parganas,
Bardhaman, Medinipur, Bankara, West Bengal
Birbhum
Andaman Island Andaman and
Nicobar
Lohit, Tirap Arunachal Pradesh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli Dadra and Nagar
Haveli
Diu Goa Daman and Diu
Low Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Chittoor, Cuddapah, Anantapur, Kurnool,
Mahbubnagar, Rangareddy, Hyderabad, Medak,
Nizamabad, Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal,
Khammam, Nalgonda
Nawada, Gaya, Aurangabad, Rohtas, Paschim
Champaran, Saharsa, Purnia, Bihar
Katihar, Munger, Giridih, Hazaribagh,
Palamau, Singhbhum
Simla Himanchal Pradesh
Udhampur Jammu and Kashmir
Raichur, Mysore, Gulbarga, Bidar Karnataka
Morena, Gwalior, Datia, Shivpuri, Guna,
Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur, Parma, Madhya Pradesh
Sagar, Damoh, Satna. Shahdol, Sidhi,
Mandsaur, Ratlam, Ujjain, Shajapur,
Dewas, Jhabua, Dhar, West Nimar, East Nimar,
Betul, Hoshangabad,
Sehore, Rajgarh, Vidisha, Bhopal, Raisen,
Chhindwara, Mandla, Raj
Nandgaon, Balaghat Bilaspur, Surguja,
Raigarh, Raipur, Bastar
Aurangabad, Nanded, Bir, Parbhani Maharashtra
Sambalpur, Phulbani, Balangir, Kalahandi,
Koraput, Ganjam Orissa
Ganganagar, Bikaner, Churn, Junjhunun,
Alwar, Bharatpur, Sawai Rajasthan
Madhopur, Jaipur, Sikar, Ajmer, Tonk,
Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali,
Jalor, Sirohi, Bhilwara, Udaipur,
Chittaurgarh, Durgarpur, Banswara,
Bundi, Kota, Jhalawar
Sikkim West Sikkim
Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor,
Bulandshahr, Moradahad, Rampur, Uttar Pradesh