RECENT TRENDS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
2.1 The Government of India, in August this year brought out a detailed plan of action entitled 'Programme of Action, 1992' (POA) translating the National Policy on Education, 1986 as modified in 1992, into concrete action points. While delineating We future course of action, POA recapitulates aria analyses the past experience and presents the current situation. This section draws upon heavily from this document in presenting the recent trends and future perspectives.
Early Childhood Care and Education 2.2 The National Policy on Education (NPE) has given a great deal of importance to Early Childhood Care mid Education (ECCE). It views ECCE as a crucial input in the strategy of human resource development (HRD), as a feeder and support programme for primary education and as a support service for working women of the disadvantaged sections of the society. It has also taken into account the holistic nature of ECCE and has pointed out the need for organising programmes for the all-round development of the child. It specifically focusses on the need for early care and stimulation of children belonging to the vulnerable sections of the society. Since the age span covered by ECCE is from conception to 6 years, emphasis has been given to a child centred approach, play way and activity based learning in place of formal methods of teaching and early introduction of the three R's. The importance of community involvement has also been highlighted. Emphasis has been given to establishing linkages between Integrated Child Development Service (lCDS) and other ECCE programmes. The Revised Policy Formulations reiterate the postulates of NPE, 1986 on ECCE.
2.3 The existing ECCE programmes include:
(i) ICDS.
(ii) Scheme of assistance to voluntary organisations for conducting Early Childhood Education (ECE) centres.
(iii) Balwadis and day-care centres run by voluntary agencies with Government's assistance.
(iv) Pre-primary schools run by the State Governments, Municipal Corporations and other governmental and non- governmental agencies.
(v) Material and child health services through primary health centres, subcentres and other agencies.
2.4 ICDS is currently the biggest programme of early childhood development, with 290 thousand Anganwadis serving nearly 14 million children and about 2.7 million mothers; 91.5 per cent ICDS projects are located in rural and tribal areas and 8.5 percent in urban slums. Besides the ICDS, by the end of 1991-92, there were 12,470 creches with a coverage of about 300 thousand children below 5 years, 4395 ECE centres in 9 Educationally Backward(EB) States and the Balwadi Nutrition Programme serving nearly 230 thousand children in the age- group of 3-5 years. The aim of ECCE is dig every child should be assured access to the fulfilment of all basic needs. As such efforts will be made towards universalisation of ICDS by A.D. 2000.
2.5 Over the recent years, a number of initiatives have been taken to make the programmes more specific. These inter alia, include training for the personnel, revision of the content of the programmes, provision of adequate instructional and play materials and enlisting community and
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 21
parental participation wherever possible in resource mobilisation, planning and implementation.
Elementary Education 2.6 Provision of free and compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years is a Directive Principle of the Constitution of India. Since 1950 determined efforts have been made towards the achievement of this goal. Over the years there has been an impressive in-. crease in the number and spread of institutions as well as enrolment rates. Universal provision of institutions has been substantially achieved at the primary stage (classes IN). According to the Fifth AR India Educational Survey (1986), 94.5 per cent of the rural population had primary schools/sections within a walking distance of 1 Km. and 83.98 per cent of the rural population was served with middle schools/sections within a walking distance of 3 Km. As seen from Table 7 in Section I the number of primary schools in- creased from 210 thousand in 1950-51 to 558 thousand in 1990-91. Similarly, the number of upper primary schools went upto 147 thousand in 1990-91 as compared to 13,600 in 1950-51. The gross enrolment ratio for children in age group 6-11 years increased from 43.1 per cent in 1950-51 to 62.4 per cent in 1960-61 to 76.4 per cent in 1970- 71 to 80.5 per cent in 1980-81 and to 101 per cent in 1990-91. Likewise, the gross enrolment of 11-14 age group increased from 12.9 percent in 1950-51 to 22.5 percent in 1960-61 to 33.4 per cent in 1970-71 to 41.9 per cent in 1980-81 and to 60 percent in 1990-91.
2.7 However, Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) in its totality is still an elusive goal and much ground is yet to be covered. Dropout rates continue to be significant. retention of children in schools is low and wastage considerable. In 1987-88, drop-out rates were 46.97 per cent in classes IN and 62.29 per cent in classes I-VIII. Despite increased participation of girls, disparity still exists. Though the participation of girls in primary education (classes IN) increased from 28.1 per cent in 1950-51 to 41.4 percent in 1990-91, it was still below the normative percentage of about 50 per cent. The participation of girls in upper primary classes (clas- ses VI-VIII) was lower, it increased from 16.1 per cent in 1950-51 to 37.4 per cent in 1990-91. The participation of SCs and STs is now more or less in proportion to their share in population at the primary level, but the sex disparity persists among SCs and STs. In classes IN, SC girls account for 38.4 percent of SC students and in classes VI-VIII 33.9 per cent (1990-91). The corresponding percentages of ST girls are 37.0 per cent and 33.9 per cent respectively.
2.8 The NPE, 1986, and its POA gave unqualified priority to UEE and introduced many innovations.First,the emphasiswasshiftedfrom enrolment per se to enrolment as well as retention. As the POA, 1986 put it crisply "enrolment by itself is of little importance if children do not continue beyond one year, many of them not seeing the school for more than a few days." Secondly, the NPE, 1986 sought to adopt an array of meticulously formulated strategies based on micro-planning, and applied at the grass root level all over the country, to ensure children's retention at school. POA, 1986 sought to replace enrolment drives by participative planning in which the teachers and the villagers would formulate family-wise and child-wise design of action to ensure that every child regularly attended school or non-formal education centre and completed at least five years of schooling or its nonformal equivalent. Thirdly, the NPE, 1986 recognised that unattractive school environment, unsatisfactory condition of buildings and insufficiency of instructional material function as demotivating factors for children and their parents. The Policy, therefore, called for a drive for a substantial improvement of primary schools and provision of support services. The scheme of Operation Blackboard was conceived to meet this challenge.The launching of this scheme has greater significance in that it was a manifestation of the Union's intent to shoulder its sham of responsibilities in this vital area of national life, a responsibility arising from Education being in the Concurrent List. Fourthly, the NPE, 1986 commended the adoption at the primary stage of a child-centred and activity-based process of learning. Fifthly, the NPE, 1986 and its POA pos-
22 Development of Education in India
tulated a large programme of restructuring of teacher education, pre- service as well as in-service. Last but the most important, the NPE, 1986 sought to address the most difficult aspect of access, viz., access to education for millions of girls and working children who, because of socioeconomic compulsions, cannot participate in school system. As rightly pointed out by the NPERC, it was for the first time, in 1986, that an educational policy had admitted that the school would not reach all children and that a large and systematic programme of Non-Formal Education (NFE) has to be an integral component of the strategy to achieve UEE. NFE, as envisaged by the NPE, 1986 and its POA, would have enough flexibility to enable the learners to learn at their own pace and at the same time would have quality comparable with formal education.
TABLE 15
Gross Enrolment Ratio
1986-87 1990-91
Total Enrolment
Classes I-V Girls 79.21 85.97
Total 95.96 101.03
Classes VI-VIII Girls 38.95 46.13
Total 53.14 60.11
SC Enrolment
Classes I-V Girls 64.8 80.6
Total 84.8 102.2
Classes VI-VIII Girls 26.5 33.3
Total 40.0 47.7
ST Enrolment
Classes I-V Girls 68.0 78.6
Total 90.1 103.3
Classes VI-VIII Girls 21.9 27.5
Total 34.1 39.7
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Selected Educational
Statistics, 1986-87 and 1990-91.
2.9 Most of the directives of NPE and POA, 1986 have been operationalised by the Union and States/UTs. The number of primary schools has increased from 529 thousand in 1985-86 to 558 thousand in 1990-91; and the number of upper primary schools has increased from 135 thousand to 146 thousand during the same period. The Development of Education in India details of the increase in gross enrolment ratios are given in Table 15.
2.10 By March, 1992, Operation Blackboard covered 414 thousand (77%) schools in 5385 (84%) Community Development Blocks and 1142 (29%) Municipal areas. Owing to resource constraint all the primary schools of the country could not be covered as envisaged. About 70,000 (46%) teachers have been appointed as against 152 thousand single teacher schools identified for coverage. Over 100 thousand (43%) class rooms have been constructed as against the target of 239 thousand.
2.11 Following the guidelines in the National Curricular Framework, the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) revised the entire school syllabi and brought out revised textbooks for classes I to XII. Based on the National Curricular Framework and the NCERT syllabi/textbooks, the States have also undertaken measures of curriculum renewal and development of new textbooks for different stages of school education for their introduction into the school system in a phased manner.
2.12 Guidelines for operationalising microplanning have been prepared and distributed to the State Governments. The concept of micro- planning and local level capacity building have been given currency and efforts launched to decentralise educational planning and management vide new schemes or experimental projects. The resulting impact of these measures is expected to be felt during the coming years.
2.13 A positive externality, rather unanticipated, of the Total Literacy Campaigns, has been that in many districts covered by the campaign an upsurge in the demand for primary education is noticeable. In quite a few districts "out of school" children in the age group 9- 14 were covered by the campaigns. Further, in these districts the awareness generated among parents is leading to better participation of children in primary schools. This pleasant experience has reconfirmed the need to pay more attention to the "demand side" in strategies for achieving UEE and highlighted the need for a disaggregated ap-
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 23
proach to the problem of UEE whereby districts, not States, and specific disadvantaged groups the girls of SCs and STs should become the basis for future planning.
2.14 Significant developments have taken place in the area of learner achievement. The NPE, 1986 spells out the Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) and states that "to promote equality it will be necessary to provide equal opportunity to all not only in access but also in the condition for success. Besides, awareness of the inherent equality of all will be created through the core curriculum. Minimum Levels of Learning will be laid down for each stage of education." In pursuance of this policy and based on the report of a Committee appointed by the Ministry of HRD in 1990 and the recommendations of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), MLL have been laid down for the primary stage with the intention of reducing the curriculum load and making it more relevant and functional for those children who have no support for learning at home or outside the school, who are not likely to avail of the opportunity of education beyond this stage and who must learn here what is required to sustain them throughout their lives and enable them to function in their world as socially useful and contributing individuals. It is now acknowledged that UEE cannot be accepted as having been achieved unless children passing out of school acquire MLL. Achievement has come to be assigned equal im- portance alongwith access and retention.
2.15 Another important development was the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) held in March 1990, in Jomtien, Thailand. The Conference was organised by UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank and attended by 155 member states of United Nations and several donor agencies. The Conference adopted a declaration calling upon all member states and international agencies to take effective steps for achieving EFA by the year A.D. 2000. The Conference advocated a holistic concept of basic education in lieu of a pectoral approach segregating sections like Primary Schooling, Non-formal Education, Adult and Continuing Education in separate compartments. In order to hamess increased donor interest in the basic education, as a result of the Conference, it was decided to formulate comprehensive basic education projects in educationally backward States.
2.16 The failure to universalise elementary education and literacy is not only a question of lack of resources but also of systemic deficiencies. The additional resources that may be available under external assistance should, therefore, be used for educational reconstruction which should go beyond the conventional measures such as opening new schools, construction of school buildings and appointing teachers. It is necessary to adopt a holistic approach, and to address
i) the educational needs of the working children, girls and disadvantaged groups,and
ii) issues of content, process and quality.
Projects should also be used to develop sus-tainable and replicable models in different programmes related to basic education. Therefore, these projects should be developed and implemented in the true spirit of meaningful participation between the Centre and States as envisaged in NPE. It would also be necessary to implement these projects in a mission mode with effective and participative management structures and with involvement of local community, teachers and NGOs.
2.17 Two such externally assisted projects, viz., the Bihar Education Project with Unesco assistance and the Lok Jumbish Project in Rajas- than with the assistance of Swedish International Development Agency have been launched. The CABE further decided that project formulation should be a process of capacity building.
2.18 While reiterating the priority for UEE as well as the policy frame outlined by NPE, 1986, the Revised Policy Formulations (RPF) brought about following modifications:
i) Achieving essential levels of learning has been specifically incorporated as one of the thrust areas in para 5.5; this is a logical consequence of the in-
24 Development of Education in India
creasing importance that came to be attached to MLL alongwith access and retention.
ii) Scope of Operation Blackboard (OB) has been enlarged to provide three reasonably large rooms and three teachers in every primary school; it has also been decided to extend OB to the upper primary stage.
iii) It has been specifically laid down that at least 50 per cent of the teachers recruited in future should be women.
iv) Taking a realistic view of the enormous task of achieving UEE in its entirety (access, retention as well as achievement), the RPF envisage that free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality should be provided to all children upto 14 years of age before the commencement of the twenty-first century.
v) Taking note of the effectiveness of the Mission mode in social sectors, particularly literacy, the RPF envisage launching of a national mission to ensure the achievement of UEE by the year 2000.
2.19 In the Eighth Plan the strategy for UEE envisages adoption of disaggregated target setting and decentralised planning. An analysis of the educational indicators reveals that within each State, even in the educationally backward ones, there are areas and districts which are almost within reach of universalisation, while even in the educationally advanced States there are districts which are still quite backward. The attempt, therefore would be to prepare district- specific and population-specific plans for UEE within the broad strategy frame of Microplanning through people's participation and introduction of Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) in schools to improve learner achievement. Microplanning will provide the framework for universal access and universal participation while MLL would be the strategy frame for universal achievement.
2.20 In order to reduce disparities a disaggregated approach will be adopted through district planning by classifying districts into four categories :
i) High literacy districts in which access and enrolment are almost universal and community awareness for education is already high;
ii) total literacy campaign districts in which community mobilisation for educational needs has been successfully generated by the National Literacy Mission;
iii) low literacy districts in which the provision of education facilities is unsatisfactory and the delivery system functions without any community involvement; and
iv) externally assisted project districts with a different management structure and sufficient financial support
The strategies with regard to access, participation, achievement, environment building, community participation, etc. will be different for these four categories of districts.
2.21 Under this broad strategy of district planning and based on the experience gained in implementation of NPE, and the RPF, the following strategies are proposed :
i) Adoption of alternative channels of schooling like voluntary schools and NFE centres for those who cannot avail of conventional full-time schooling.
ii) Microplanning through involvement of teachers and the community in order to design and implement a family- wise, child-wise plan of action for universal access/enrolment and participation.
iii) Making parents aware about their responsibility for ensuring the completion of elementary education by their children and for providing at home the facilities and encouragement needed for this purpose.
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 25
iv) Establishment of linkages between programmes of pre-school and primary education, and between programmes of literacy and UEE, in total literacy campaign districts.
v) Improvement of school facilities through revamped Operation Blackboard and connecting it to MLL strategy. It will also be extended to upper primary stage.
vi) Decentralization of educational management for making the schools function so as to ensure universal enrolment, retention and achievement.
vii) Introduction of MLLs at primary and upper primary stages including coverage of the non-formal education channel.
viii) Revision of process and content of elementary education to make teaching-learning child centred, activity based and joyful.
ix) Introduction of continuous and comprehensive evaluation with focus on remedial measures.
x) Modification of teacher training programmes in view of changed strategies and programmes.
xi) Improvement of the monitoring system for UEE.
xii) Launching a National Mission to achieve the goals envisaged in the revised Policy.
2.22 Further efforts would be made to develop district specific projects, with specific activities, clearly defined responsibilities, definite timeschedule and specific targets. Each district project will be prepared within the major strategy framework and will be tailored to the specific needs and possibilities in the district. Apart from effective UEE, the goals of each project will include the reduction of existing disparities in educational access, the provision of alternative systems of comparable standards to the disadvantaged groups, a substantial improvement in the quality of schooling facilities, obtaining a genuine community involvement in the running of schools, and building up local level capacity to ensure effective decentralisation of educational planning. That is to say, the overall goal of the project would be reconstruction of primary education as a whole in selected districts instead of a piecemeal implementation of schemes. An integrated approach is more likely to achieve synergies among different programme components.
Non-formal Education 2.23 The role of non-formal part-time education in providing education to working children, and children in habitations without schools has been recognized since the Education Commission of 1964-66. During 1979-80, the scheme of Non-Formal Education (NFE) was introduced as an alternative strategy to impart education to children, who for various reasons cannot attend formal schools. The NPE envisaged a large and systematic programme of NFE to achieve UEE. The scheme was revised in its content and emphasis in 1987-88. Although its focus is on the ten educationally backward States, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, it has been extended to cover urban slums, hilly, tribal and desert areas and areas with con- centration of working children in the other States as well. Financial responsibility is borne by the Central and State Governments in the ratio of 50:50 for general (co-educational) and 90 : 10 for girls NFE centres. Assistance to the extent of 100 per cent is provided to voluntary agencies for running NFE centres and for experimental and innovative projects.
2.24 The (revised) NFE scheme has been visualized as child-centred, environmentoriented, flexible system to meet the educational needs of the comparatively deprived geographical areas and socio-economic sections of the society. Other features of the scheme are its or- ganisational flexibility, relevance of curriculum, diversity in learning activities to relate them to the learner's needs and de- centralized management. The programme is being implemented on
26 Development of Education India
a project basis, generally co-terminus with the community development Block comprising about 100 NFE Centres.
2.25 In order to strengthen the NFE Scheme the following strategies are being adopted :
i) Provision of NFE centres will be based on the Microplanning exercise carried out for UEE. NFE centres will invariably cater to the needs of children, especially girls, who are not able to or who cannot attend the formal school.
ii) The community will be involved in ate setting-up, and supervision of all NFE centres.
iii) The NFE instructors will be identified with the help of the community. Special efforts will be made to appoint women instructors wherever possible.
iv) Training of NFE personnel, especially instructors, will be given top priority. Adequate training and re- orientation will, be provided.
v) Training responsibility will be shared by the project, District level institutions like DIETs, DRUs, State level institutions like SCERT, and National institutes like NCERT and NIEPA.
vi) Project administration will be strengthened for effective decentralisation of management. Necessary administrative and management inputs will be provided at the State and District levels.
vii) Arrangements will be made for testing of children in the NFE stream with reference to an equivalent Stage in the formal system and specific instructions issued to facilitate lateral entry into the formal system for students of the NFE stream.
viii) Efforts will be made Lo link non-for-mal courses with the Open Schools.
ix) The NFE programme will be linked with the scheme of public libraries, Jana Shiksha Nilayams, etc.
x) In total literacy campaign districts follow-up programmes will be taken up for children in the age- group 9-14 to go beyond NLM literacy norms.This will form apart of the postliteracy and continuing education programme of the district.
xi) Vocational and technical courses of wide variety will be provided for children and youth who pass out of the Non-Formal stream. Shramik Vidyapeeth and Vountary agencies will be involved in this process.
xii) Voluntary agencies will be encouraged to undertake projects of NFE, especially in areas where the formal school system is not able to meet the demands of UEE.
Adult Literacy 2.26 The National Literacy Mission (NLM) which was launched on 5th May, 1988, with the objective of imparting functional literacy to 80 million adult illiterates in the age-group 15-35 by 1995 has entered its fifth year of operationalisation.The Mission has confirmed in more than one sense that eradication of illiteracy is not a utopian idea but something which is possible, feasible and achievable. The first positive indication came from the provisional figures of the 1991 census released by the Registrar General and the Census Commissioner of India. The literacy rate for the population aged 7 and above in the country increased from 43.56 per cent in 1981 to 52.11 per cent in 1991, registering an increase of 8.55 per cent. Whereas the male literacy in creased from 56.37 percent to 66.83 percent, the female literacy increased from 29.7 per cent to 39.42 per cent. For the first time, the country achieved the distinction of having larger number of literate persons (352.00 million) than the illiterate ones (324.00 million).
2.27 Several exciting and interesting developments have taken place in the area of literacy and adult education since the launching of National
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 27
Literacy Mission in 1988 in general and the call for "Education for All" in the Jomtien World Conference held in March, 1990 in particular.
2.28 The mass campaign for eradication of illiteracy launched in Eranakulam district of Kerala in 1989, with the active involvement of persons of all walks of life, achieved significant success and the district achieved the distinction of becoming the first fully literate district in the country on 4th February, 1990. Encouraged by this success, Total Literacy Campaigns were launched to cover the entire States of Kerala and Goa and the Union Territory of Pondicherry. At present, 156 districts in the country are covered by the Total Literacy Campaigns either fully or partially. The entire State of Kerala, the Union Territory of Pondicherry, Burdwan and Midnapur districts in West Bengal, Bijapur and South Kannad district in Karnataka, Sindhudurg and Wardha districts in Maharashtra, Puddukottai and P.T.T. Sivaganga districts in Tamil Nadu have already concluded the Total Literacy Campaigns and have achieved success ranging between 65 to 75 per cent. Other campaigns are in different stages of implementation.
2.29 The number of students participating in the National Literacy Mission crossed one million by 1991-92. All the other existing programmes were also reviewed and revised to conform to the principle of area approach for total literacy. The thrust areas under the National Literacy Mission include continuous environment building conducive to literacy, use of IPCL (Increased Pace and Content of Learning) materials in all literacy programmes and organisation of mass campaigns for total literacy in a definite timeframe as dominant strategy for eradication of illiteracy in all programmes of adult education.
2.30 After experimenting with successive and alternative models of adult literacy, NLM has now settled down to a model which has given lot of hope and faith that illiteracy can be overcome in a time-bound manner with planned and co-ordinated efforts and with mobilisation of all sections of the society. In addition to 156 districts already covered by the Total Literacy Campaigns, 200 additional districts would be covered by such campaigns by the close of 1997-98,
2.31 There are certain characteristic features of Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) which make them unique in relation to other programmes. These are as under :
i) These campaigns are area-specific, time-bound, volunteer-based, costeffective and outcome oriented.
ii) These am implemented through the District Level Committees which are registered under the Societies Registration Act under the leadership of the District Collector/Chief Secretary, Zila Parishad (District Council). All sections of society are given due representation in the matter of planning and implementation of programmes.
iii) The TLCs cater to both the demand syndrome and the supply mechanism. In other words, a positive demand of the people for literacy is generated first before the delivery mechanism is provided.
iv) A culture of equality is pervasive in a TLCs. It is implemented in the nature of a people's movement which every one owns, where every one contributes and participates.
v) Though the TLC is meant to impart functional literacy it can be at the same time a campaign for the universal enrolment and retention of children in schools, immunisation. propagation of small family norms, protection of maternity and child care, women's equality and empowerment, peace and communal harmony, etc.
vi) Each TLC has a people oriented well-knit management structure at the district, talukas/block, mandal panchayat or village levels. These management committees mostly consist of non-government officials and function in a de-bureaucratised,
28 Development of Education in India
decentralised and participatory manner which has enabled them to obtain the participation of the people at the grass-root level.
2.32 The mass campaign approach is now accepted as a possible achievable and feasible approach. There is now an active and competitive participation of State Governments to take up the TLCs. The District Collectors who were primarily pre-occupied with problems of maintenance of law and order, peace and tranquility and im- plementation of government funded development programmes and had hardly any acquaintance with the adult education programmes, are now in the vanguard of TLCs and are providing the leadership, motivation, direction and organisational support for these campaigns.
2.33 The emphasis in adult literacy programme has completely shifted from mere enrolment of learners in the adult education centres in the traditional centre based approach, to attainment of certain predetermined levels of literacy and numeracy in a given area with a definite time frame. The basic features of this dominant strategy for eradication of illiteracy i.e. they being area- specific, time-bound volunteer-based and result-oriented have been introduced in all other programmes being undertaken for combating illiteracy in the country. Media is being involved in literacy promotion as a tool of dissemination of information, as a tool of mobilization, motivation and sensitisation, as a tool of learning/sharing information, ideas and experiences, and as a tool of social action for change. Both print and non-print media including the traditional folk art forms are being harnessed in promoting literacy.
Secondary Education 2.34 The NPE, 1986 laid down that "access to secondary education will be widened to cover areas unserved by it at present." There has been a significant increase in the number of secondary and higher secondary schools and in enrolment during the period from 1987-88 to 1990-91. During this period enrolment at secondary stage increased by 16.8 per cent and at the higher secondary stage by 17.6 per cent. The number of secondary schools increased from 54,845 in 1987-88 to 59,468 in 1990-91; corresponding figures for higher secondary schools are 16,460 and 19,151 respectively. The ratio of secondary and higher secondary schools to upper primary schools had declined from 1 :1.98 in 1987-88 to 1: 1.86 in 1990-91.
2.35 Gender disparities in enrolments are significant. In 1990-91 girls accounted for 33A per cent of the enrolment at the secondary stage and 32 per cent at the higher secondary stage. The SCs and STs also lag behind in regard to enrolment. Thus, SCs account for 11.85 percent at the secondary stage and 9.7 per cent at the higher secondary stage; corresponding figures for STs being 4.21 per cent and 3 per cent respectively.
2.36 Though a considerable degree of uniformity has been achieved in regard to common education structure of 10+2+3, there is considerable diversity regarding the location of the +2 stage. In quite a few States it is not part of the school system.
2.37 The secondary stage is divided into two very distinct sub-stages - secondary (upto class X) which is the stage of general education and higher secondary (classes XI and XII) which is marked by differentiation and diversification. The national system of education, as stated in the NPE,1986 envisages a National Curricular Framework. Such a framework has already been prepared for the secondary education though its implementation has been uneven. The work of curriculum revision for the secondary stage was undertaken in almost all the States and the Union Territories (UTs). The NCERT also prepared the guidelines, syllabi and textbooks for all stages of school education. For the higher secondary stage, however, the Curricular Framework has not yet been authorised. The NCERT had developed a draft document in 1988 but that document requires to be reviewed keeping in view the emerging concerns. However, several States used the draft National Curricular Framework for the higher secondary stage prepared by the NCERT.
2.38 The Revised Policy Formulations take note of the increased demand for secondary
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 29
education and go beyond NPE, 1986 by calling for a planned expansion of secondary education facilities all over the country. Secondly, they call for higher participation of girls, SCs and STs, particularly in science, vocational and commerce streams. Thirdly, they call for reorganisation of Boards of Secondary Education and vesting them with autonomy "so that their ability to improve the quality of secondary education is enhanced." Fourthly, they envisage that effort will be made to provide computer literacy in as many secondary level institutions as possible so that the children are equipped with necessary computer skills to be effective in the emerging technologi- cal world.
2.39 Broad parameters of the strategy envisaged include:
- Extending access to secondary education by setting up new schools in the unserved areas and by extending and consolidating the existing facilities, with particular emphasis on ensuring substantially increased enrolment of girls, the SCs and the STs.
- Progressively bringing in the higher secondary stage (and all its equivalents) as a part of the school system in all States.
- Formulating a National Curriculum Framework for the higher secondary stage as well as development of new curricula and instructional packages based on the semester pattern.
- Reviewing and revising the curricula of secondary education (classes IX and X).
- Implementing a comprehensive scheme of examination reform.
- Improving considerably the physical and infrastructural facilities in secondary and higher secondary schools.
- Providing for diversity of courses in higher secondary schools.
- Reviewing afresh the existing system of pre- service teacher education for the secondary stage and formulating and implementing an improved teacher education system.
- Institutionalising in-service teacher training.
- Transforming the role of the Boards of Secondary Education.
- Strengthening the academic institutions and bodies concerned with research and development in the areas of curriculum, instructional materials and equipment for secondary schools.
Vocational Education 2.40 The NPE, 1986 advocated a systematic, well-planned programme of vocational education which would be a distinct stream intended to prepare students for identified occupations. It envisaged that vocational courses would ordinarily be provided at the higher secondary (+2) stage but flexibility was provided to start vocational education after class VIII. The NPE, 1986 set a target to cover 10 per cent of higher secondary students under vocational courses by 1990 and 25 per cent by 1995. A substantially funded centrally sponsored scheme for vocationalisation of secondary education was started with effect from February 1988. The scheme was taken for implementation in all States and Union Territories excepting Tripura, Daman and Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Lakshadweep. At the end of 1991-92, 12,543 vocational sections were approved in 4400 schools, thereby creating facilities for diversion of about 6.27 lakh students at the +2 stage (@25 students per vocational section in classes XI and XII). This accounts for 9.3 per cent of students enrolled at the +2 stage. Al- though quantitatively the implementation of the vocational education scheme at the +2 stage has been fairly substantial, in qualitative terms, there remains much to be done. Vocationalisation of education is identified as a priority area in the Eighth Five Year Plan.
2.41 The NPE, 1986 had also mentioned the need for non-formal and need-based vocational programmes mainly, though not exclusively, for disadvantaged groups. The NPE, 1986 also envisaged vocational courses at the tertiary level for
30 Development of Education in India
facilitating vertical mobility. While some beginning has been made in these areas, they will receive impetus during the Eighth Plan.
2.42 The Revised Policy Formulations retain the policy framework laid by the NPE, 1986 but for two modifications. First, the target for coverage under vocational courses has been revised ten per cent of the higher secondary students by 1995 and 25 per cent by 2000. Secondly, they envisage children at the higher secondary level being imparted generic vocational courses which cut across several occupational fields and which are not occupation specific.
2.43 The vocational programme is being revised with particular emphasis on the following aspects :
- The credibility of the programme should be established. This would depend on its quality, relevance and acceptability.
- Education-employment linkages should be firmly established.
- Adequate infrastructure physical and academic should be provided.
- Assured supply of funds over an extended period of 5 to 10 years.
- Training programme for teachers both pre-service and in- service.
- Training of teacher trainers.
- Effective management structures at all levels at the Centre and in the States and reasonable tenure for their functionaries.
- Equivalence among the vocational, technical and academic courses.
- Curriculum development in consultation with employers.
- Enlisting community involvement and participation of commercial establishments and industrial houses.
- Need for active co-operation of other government departments with the Department of Education at the Central and State level.
Higher Education 2.44 India today has one of the largest systems of higher education comprising over 190 Universities and 7,000 colleges having an enrolment of over 4.4 million students with a 263 thousand strong faculty.
2.45 Several important schemes have been introduced in the last few years to restore the integrity, discipline and credibility of the system and to elevate the standards of higher education in the country. The all-India screening test for recruitment of teachers introduced in December, 1989 continues. A code of ethics and procedure for assessment and evaluation of teachers has been evolved. The system of Academic Staff Colleges for reorientation and refresher courses for teachers has been introduced. A beginning has been made for granting autonomy to selected colleges and university departments. Academic calendar has been prepared and would be continuously monitored. Andhra Pradesh has set tip a State Council of Higher Education and other States are considering setting up State Councils to coordinate development and growth of higher education in the States. Common research facilities of international standards in the fields of Nuclear Science, Astronomy, Astrophysics and Atomic Energy have been set up to provide research facilities and services. Model curricula for all disciplines have been prepared by expert committees and circulated to universities for adoption. Special assistance is being given for starting courses in emerging areas like Bio-tech- nology, Aunospheric Science, Oceanography, Electronics and Computer Science. Finally alternate models of university management are also being considered.
2.46 Keeping in view the needs of the system of higher education in the country the thrust areas for development identified for the future, especially during the Eighth Plan period (1992-97) are :
- Consolidation and strengthening of facilities in universities and colleges;
- Re-designing and restructuring of courses to meet the developmental needs of the country;
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 31
- Support to establishment of autonomous colleges, university departments and examination reforms, strengthening of research facilities with special reference to creation of common facilities;
- Greater involvement of students in extension activities like adult education and population education;
- Teachers' training;
- Modernisation and restructuring from within the system;
- Generation of financial resources from within the system;
- Additional enrolment of one million students in Open Universities and Distance Education System.
2.47 The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) which was established by an Act of Parliament in September, 1985 for the intro- duction and promotion of the Open University and distance education systems in the educational pattern of the country and for the coordination and determination of standards in such systems, has emerged as a strong alternative at the level of higher education. The IGNOU has adopted an integrated multi- media instructional approach consisting of printed material, audio and video cassettes and counselling sessions organised during the week-end.
2.48 In pursuance of its role as national apex body for promotion, coordination and determination of standards in distance education, IGNOU has set up a Distance Education Council (DEC) as a statutory authority of the University. The DEC is initiating steps for the establishment of a network of open universities and other distance education institutions in the country.
Technical and Management Education 2.49 Technical education, which in our context also includes management education, is one of the most crucial components of human resource development with great potential for adding value to products and services and for improving the quality of life of the people. As a result of the efforts made during the successive Five Year Plans in the past on the development of technical education, the expansion of technical education in the country has been phenomenal during the past four decades.
2.50 There are,at present,over 200 recognised technical education institutions at the first degree level and more than 500 at the diploma level with the annual admission capacities of 40,000 and 80,000 students respectively. Facilities for Masters and Doctoral programmes in engineering and technology have also been created in 140 institutions with an intake of about 10,000 students per year. Five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) established at Bombay, Delhi, Kanpur, Kharagpur and Madras have emerged as premier centres of technical education in India. The sixth IIT is in the process of being established at Guwahati in Assam. Specialised institutions like National Institute for Training in Industrial Engineering, National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology, School of Planning and Architecture, Indian School of Mines, Technical Teachers' Training Institutes and premier technical universities like University of Roorkee, Anna University, Birla Institute of Technology (Pilani), Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and Banaras Hindu University (Institute of Technology) are important centres of technical education. In the area of management education, Indian Institutes of Management have been set up at Ahmedabad, Calcutta, Bangalore and Lucknow. Besides, there are more than 350 degree institutions and 800 diploma institutions at the State level. The National Technical Man- power Information System has been set up by the Government of India to monitor the supply and utilisation of engineering and technical man- power in the country so as to ensure a well planned development of technical education.
2.51 Some professional bodies in the fields of engineering, technology and management conduct formal and non-formal education/training programmes for fresh students as well as the working professionals and also contribute to professional development in their respective areas of activities.
32 Development of Education in India
2.52 The NPE, 1986 underlined the need for reorganising the technical and management education system to effectively deal with the changes in the economy, social environment, production and management processes and rapid expansion of knowledge and advances in science & technology. The NPE, 1986 laid specific guidelines for the qualitative and quantitative development of the technical and management education sectors; establishment of linkages amongst the concerned agencies; manpower assessment and technical education forecasting; increasing effectiveness of technical education management system; proper delivery systems; measures to achieve greater cost effectiveness and generation of resources through suitable means.
2.53 The various initiatives taken after the NPE include :
(i) AICTE : As one of the most significant achievements in the sector of technical education, the All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) was conferred statutory status under the AICTE Act in 1987. The Council has started functioning with an independent secretariat through the various Boards of Studies and the Regional Committees. There is, however, an urgent need to strengthen the AICTE in terms of its professional and administrative functions through a process of decentralisation.
(ii) Scheme of Continuing Education : The scheme was started through the Indian Society for Technical Education for upgrading the skills of working professionals under which more than 200 course modules were produced which provided training to about 10,000 working professionals.
(iii) Industry Institute Inter-action and Entrepreneurship and Management Development Programmes : A scheme of industry-institute inter-action for forging effective and closer inter-action between technical institutions and the industry was launched. This also included establishment of an industrial foundation at IIT, Delhi and technological transfer and innovation. A scheme of entrepreneurship development for catering to the developmental needs of the non-corporate and unorganised sectors was also launched through the technical institutions.
(iv) Curriculum Development : A scheme for restructuring the curriculum development centres was launched for effecting curriculum development on the basis of realistic needs of the industry and the users.
(v) Strengthening the scheme of Modernisation and Removal of Obsolescence and Thrust Areas of Technical Education : Greater emphasis was given for covering more institutions by modernising their laboratories, workshops and teaching processes and by adopting new emerging areas of engineering and technology. This, however, needs massive financial in- puts and a strong monitoring and evaluation system as compared to the one that exists.
(vi) World Bank Assisted Projects for Development of Technician Education : A massive project with the assis- tance of World Bank was launched to enable the State Governments to upgrade their polytechnics in capacity, quality and efficiency with the total cost of Rs. 1650 crore to be implemented in two phases (1992-98) with a target of covering 500 approved polytechnics in 16 States and one Union Territory.
(vii) Review of IIMs and TTTIs : The IIMs and the TTTIs were reviewed by two separate National Review Committees in order to assess the present status and impact so as to give them a new thrust and direction.
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 33
(viii) Review of Community Polytechnics: The Scheme of Community Polytechnics was reviewed by a National Expert Committee in terms of its impact, coverage and effectiveness on the socioeconomic upliftment and poverty alleviation. The number of Community Polytechnics was also substantially increased.
(ix) Apprenticeship Training : In order to provide training for the 10+2 vocational students under the amended Apprentices Act, additional vocational subjects were included under the purview of the Act.
Open Education 2.54 The open learning system augments opportunities for education, ensures access, is costeffective and promotes a relevant, flexible and innovative system of education. The initial experience of the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and the State Open Univer- sities, as well as the National Open School underlines the tremendous potential of the open learning system.
2.55 The IGNO which launched its academic programmes in 1987 has made significant progress. The University presently offers Bachelor's degree programmes in thirteen disciplines, a Master's degree in Business Administration, and several diploma and certificate programmes. The annual enrolment has increased from about 4,400 in 1987 to over 62,000 in 1992. The three State Open Universities, namely, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University in Andhra Pradesh (BRAOU), the Kota Open University (KOU) and the Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University in Maharashtra (YCMOU) together admitted about 65,000 students in 1992. The distance education institutions (open universities and institutes of correspondence education of conventional universities) accounted for about 11.5 per cent of the enrolment in higher education in 1990-91.
2.56 Several new programmes in employmentrelated areas are being developed by the IGNOU. Advanced Diploma programmes in Construction Management, Advanced Diploma in Irrigation and Water Resources, Postgraduate Diploma in Journalism and Mass- Communication, Bachelor's Degree in Nursing and Master's Degree in Distance Education and Library and Information Science are some of the new programmes under development by the IGNOU. The State Open Universities have also launched a number of relevant programmes in Electronics, Horticulture, Education and Communication besides the diploma and degree programmes in Humanities, Commerce and Social Sciences. The Directorates of Correspondence Education of the conventional universities have also been diversifying their programmes. These institutions are presently offering a large number of diploma and certificate programmes in technical/professional areas.
2.57 The IGNOU has set up a Distance Education Council as a statutory body for the promotion, coordination and determination of standards of the open university/distance education system.
* The Distance Education Council will take steps for networking the State Open Universities and other distance education institutions, for sharing courses and programmes, and developing a pattern and structure for the open university programmes that would facilitate student mobility among programmes as well as institutions.
* The open university/distance education programmes would be structured on a modular pattern with provision for transfer of credits. Students will have the facility of registering for courses of their choice which, in appropriate combinations, will enable them to obtain certificates, diplomas or degrees.
* The Distance Education Council will encourage joint development of programmes and courses by IGNOU, State Open Universities and the Directorates of Correspondence
34 Development of Education in India
Education of conventional universities.
* It will also recommend financial assistance from IGNOU to state open universities for their development and for undertaking specific projects.
* It will initiate steps to organise programmes of training for the development of human resources for the open university/distance education system especially in such areas as course development and production, organisation of support services, etc. The possibility of establishing institutional mechanisms for this purpose will be explored.
2.58 The Distance Education Council will ultimately assume the responsibility for developing the existing correspondence education programmes on a selective basis and converting them into distance education programmes of an acceptable quality. However, for the time being, the responsibility for the development of distance education programmes in the conventional universities will remain with the UGC. There would be close consultation between the UGC and the IGNOU in the development of such programmes.
2.59 Electronic media will be progressively involved in the expansion of open learning. Doordarshan (Television) is already telecasting programmes of the IGNOU three days a week for 30 minutes from 6.30 to 7.00 a.m. The All India Radio (AIR) stations of Hyderabad and Bombay are broadcasting selected IGNOU programmes. The Hyderabad station of All India Radio has set up a transmission network in Andhra Pradesh for broadcasting the programmes offered by the BRAOU. A few of the institutes of correspondence education have made arrangements with the All India Radio for broadcasting their lessons. Distance education requires as a matter of prerequisite multimedia instruction and its success will substantially depend on the availability of facilities for broadcasting and telecasting. Efforts will be made during the Eighth Plan period to augment and network these facilities so that these programmes can reach a larger number of students.
2.60 Measures will be taken to promote the mobility of students among open universities and among the traditional universities and open universities. A significant development in this regard is the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding between the University of Pon- dicherry and the IGNOU which provides for recognition of each other's degrees and diplomas as well as transfer of credits for courses successfully completed by students between the two universities. Efforts will be made to promote similar arrangements with other universities.
2.61 The National Open School (NOS) already established, will be strengthened and developed to widen access to education at the secondary and higher secondary levels. Efforts will be made to establish open schools in different States so that secondary education is significantly expanded through different regional languages.
2.62 The possibility of launching vocational education programmes through the open learning system will be explored. For this purpose, meaningful linkages will be established with workstations, industries and other organisations. Such bilateral initiatives will help administer the theoretical and practical components of the vocational education packages.
2.63 The possibility of setting up a national consortium on open schooling will be explored in order to initiate coordinated steps in such areas as policy issues, priorities, long-term national and state needs, establishment of resource centres for development of materials, development of human resources for the open learning system, monitoring and evaluation of its performance, etc.
2.64 The open learning system at the secondary and tertiary levels will focus attention on education and training in areas related to employment and self-employment. It will seek the involvement of the existing institutions and organisations in commerce, industry, the service sectors as well as rural development organisations, including the mobilisation of the material and human resources in such organisations in the
Recent Trends and Future Perspectives 35
development of appropriate programmes and their delivery. Efforts will be made to develop close co-operation and collaboration between open education institutions and the agencies which use trained manpower both in the public and the private sectors as well as the professional organisations in various fields.
2.65 The open learning system will take steps to meet the continuing education needs of the manpower already employed in different sectors. It will help develop programmes in close cooperation with the concerned employing organisations; for training and retraining of man- power, for the upgradation of skills for application of new technologies and also in providing opportunities to serving personnel to improve their qualifications for their professional advancement. The open learning system will seek the support and cooperation of a wide spectrum of employers in the fulfilment of these objectives.
Teacher Education 2.66 A Centrally sponsored scheme of Restructuring and Reorganisation of Teacher Education is being implemented since 1987-88. It aims at Strengthening the teacher education system in the country so as to provide effective training and academic support to schools and adult and non-formal education systems.
2.67 The centrally sponsored scheme of teacher education has the following main components.
- Mass Orientation of about five lakh School Teachers (MOST) annually till 1989-90 to familiarise them with the major thrusts envisaged in the NPE and LO improve their professional competence.
- Setting-up of about 400 District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) either by upgrading suitable existing Elementary Teacher Education Institutions or, where necessary, by establishing new ones so as to provide total academic and training support to the elementary and adult education systems at the district level :
- Strengthening of about 250 Secondary Teacher Education Institutions (STEIs), development of about 50 of them as Institutions of Advanced Study in Education (IASEs) and the rest as Colleges; of Teacher Education (CTEs);
- Strengthening of SCERTs; and
- Establishment and strengthening of Departments of Education in Universities by the UGC.
2.68 Setting up DIETs, CTEs and IASEs is a long-gestation activity. Yet, about 150 DIETs have become operational and have started con- ducting training programmes. Appraisal of few such institutions sanctioned during 1987-88 is being undertaken through external agencies.
2.69 A National Council of Teacher Education was set up in 1973 to maintain standards of teacher education. The Council is being con- ferred statutory powers to enable it to discharge its responsibilities more effectively, including through accreditation of teacher training institutions.
Environmental Education 2.70 The concern for environmental education stems from the global concern for environment (preservation) in view of the latest developments which are emerging as a threat to the survival of the mankind. The NPE, 1986 duly accepted the importance while stating that problem of environment is a value which along with other core values, should form an integral part of the curriculum at all stages of education.The environmental education programmes thus aims at developing environmental consciousness among teachers and taught by providing knowledge base about environmental concerns through school curriculum. It also supplements the theoretical base with area specific environmental programmes so that concern for environment is well appreciated.
2.71 Government of India, started a centrally sponsored scheme of environmental orientation to school education in 1988-89 with a view to
36 Development of Education in India
promoting integration of educational programmes in the schools with local environmental conditions. The scheme provides 100 per cent assistance to the States and voluntary agencies for taking up the various programmes/activities aimed at creating environmental consciousness among the students on project basis. It stipulates that each project area should consist of a few blocks/districts having homogeneous ecological conditions. In order to plan, co-ordinate and monitor the activities proposed to be taken up by a State, assistance is provided for creation of a State level cell. Similarly, in order to design and organize various educational programmes in schools keeping in view the local environmental conditions and concerns, assistance is provided for setting up of project cells for each project area. The project activities include review and development of curriculum to emphasise environmental awareness; preparation of textbooks, instructional material, informative books, booklets, brochures, posters, slides, audio tapes, and films on environment; organisation of seminars for creating environmental consciousness; orientation of teachers; adoption of monuments for their up keep and maintenance study of ecological problems; etc. One of the preferred activities under the project is setting up of school nurseries. Voluntary organisations are assisted for taking up various kinds of experimental and innovative programmes in the field of environmental orientation to school education. Upto the end of March, 1992 the scheme has covered about 20,000 schools.
2.72 Although environmental education activities are concentrated at secondary level, efforts are being made to promote this component at elementary level by involving NonGovernmental Organisations (NGOs) through area specific projects. The UNESCO has also been providing assistance to NGOs in this regard. These efforts are important because, for a sustainable development, preservation and conservation of fragile and critical ecosystem is of crucial significance.
Education and Women's Empowerment 2.73 Education for Women's Equality is a vital component of the overall strategy of securing equity and social justice in education. The National Policy on Education, 1986 makes a strong and forthright statement on the intervening and empowering role of education. It emphasizes the provision of special support services and removal of factors which result in discrimination against women at all levels of education. The Policy and Programme of Action brings out clearly the need and will to devise institutional mechanism in order to ensure that gender sensitivity is reflected in the implementation of educational programmes across the board. Education for Women's Equality is too important to be left to the individual commitments or proclivities of persons in charge of implementing programmes. There- fore all agencies and institutions in the field of education are to be made sensitive and responsive to the gender dimension of educational inequities.
2.74 Last few years have seen concentrated efforts to promote education of girls particularly at the lower levels. As a result there has been significant gains as may be seen from Table 16.
TABLE 16
Gross Enrolment Ratios: Girls
Classes (I-V) Classes(VI-VIII)
1986 1990 1986 1990
General
Population 79.21 85.97 38.95 46.13
S.C. Population 64.77 80.60 26.55 33.28
S.T. Population 67.96 78.60 21.87 27.50
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Selected Educational Statistics, 1986-87
and 1990-91.