SECONDARY EDUCATION
1. The problems of secondary education are somewhat different from those of the primary and middle stages. The differences are mainly on account of the variation in the goals for secondary education on one side, and primary and middle on the other. Whereas the goal in respect of primary and middle stages is universal and compulsory education and middle stage is supposed to be the terminal stage for most of the pupils, secondary education has to take into consideration the principles of suitability and selectivity. Diversification of courses adds another dimension to the problems of secondary education. The First All-India Educational Survey stressed the expansion of facilities to the extent of making these universal. The Education Commission have suggested reduction in the emphasis on this aspect. The data in this chapter illustrate the existing position with regard to the availability of schooling facilities, size and enrolment of secondary sections, science laboratories and medium of instruction.
SCHOOLING FACILITIES AT SECONDARY STAGE IN RURAL AREAS 2. Reproduced below is an extract from the Report of the First All- India Educational Survey* stating the procedure adopted for delimitation of school areas for secondary schools:
The High School Area 3. As regards population, it had been decided that habitations with a population of '5,000 or above', were to have a secondary section in them. Habitations with populations of 'less than 5,000' were to be grouped according to the principle given in the above paragraph. 4. The Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66. contains the following recommendations regarding expansion of secondary education:
7.43. General Principles
(1) Establishment of Secondary Schools It is a major objective of educational policy to take the primary school as close to the home of the child as possible, even if this implies the establishment of smaller and costlier institutions. At the secondary stage, on the other hand, distance is a less overriding consideration, and emphasis must shift to the establishment of optimum sized institutions which tend to be more economical and efficient. This is discussed more fully in a later section.
(2) Enrolments in Secondary Education Similarly, for several years to come it will not be financially possible for the States to make secondary education universal nor will it be possible on economic grounds for the large majority of children to continue their education beyond the compulsory stage. The objective of the enrolment policy in secondary education will, therefore, have to be defined on a different basis. In this connection, we invite attention to our recommendations made elsewhere that
-the overall enrolments in secondary education should be broadly governed by the need for trained manpower; it is essential to vocationalise secondary education and to work towards a target wherein about 20 % of the enrolments at the lower secondary stage and about 50 % of those at the higher secondary stage would be in vocational education.
-there should be an emphasis on equalisation of opportunities in secondary education and, from this point of view, a large programme of scholarships should be developed at this stage; efforts are also needed to reduce the large imbalances now seen in the expansion of secondary education in the different parts of the country and to spread secondary education among girls, the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.
-in identifying the children to be assisted in studying further at the secondary stage, 'ability' should not be understood in the narrow traditional sense to mean merely intellectual competence, but the concept should be broadened to include all types of abilities; and earnest efforts should be made to identify and develop talent.]
*Report of the All-India Educational Survey. Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1960, page 435.
50 SECOND ALL-INDIA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY
7.46. It is, therefore, necessary to regulate enrolments as proposed above. This implies the adoption of a policy of (1) locating secondary schools in a well planned manner ......................
To give effect to these new policies, we make the following recommendations :
(1) A development plan for secondary education should be prepared separately for each district, after taking into consideration the existing and perspective needs of expansion. The plan should indicate the measures required to be taken, with rough estimates of cost, for raising each secondary school to an optimum level of efficiency, the places where new schools are needed, and the manner in which the location of existing schools can be rationalised by a process of consolidation in areas where schools have already proliferated and are creating problems of overlapping, duplication, or unhealthy educa- tional competition. The preparation of such a plan should be undertaken and completed immediately, and its implementation should start as soon as practicable and be completed in a period of about ten years. Each school should be given notice to develop itself on the lines indicated within a given time; and the necessary financial assistance should be made available to it by a suitable amendment of the grant-in-aid rules, if necessary. A large majority of the schools, it is hoped, will rise to the occasion and improve themselves. Until they do so, however, their recognition should be extended temporarily and there should be a detailed inspection to assess the progress made before the recognition is renewed. If a school cannot come up to the standards in spite of all these efforts, there should be no hesitation in withdrawing its recognition.
The Commission have also stated 7.61. The policy implications are clear. An effort has to be made to slow down the proliferation of small and uneconomic institutions. It should be difficult for new secondary schools to be established except in areas where a clear local need can be proved and where there is a reasonable chance of the new school growing to a reasonable size within five years or so. To achieve this, it is desirable to prescribe stringent conditions for recognition and to enforce them strictly. A good working rule would be to establish a secondary school serving a radius of five to seven miles with a total population coverage of 10,000 to 15,000; and to adopt the practice of providing transport in the from of a bicycle to students who live at comparatively long distances, and hostel facilities, where necessary. In certain areas, secondary schools have already proliferated to such an extent that it is not the establishment of new secondary schools, but the consolidation of existing ones that is the urgent need of the day.
5. The recommendations of the Education Commission were received after the work of the present Survey had made considerable progress. it is not known how many habitations in rural areas have a population of 10,000 to 15,000 each. Some assumptions can, however, be made on the basis of the data available (Table 116). There are 2,000 habitations in the slab '5,000 and above' and their total population is 1,34,83,551. The average population of a habitation in this slab is about 6,500. It may, therefore, be that the number of rural habitations with populations of 10,000 or 1.5,000 each would be very small. It is not possible to give an exact idea of the school areas that can be formed with a population of 10,000 or 15,000 within a radius of five to seven miles in each case; nor is it easy to estimate how many of these areas are served by secondary sections. In the present chapter, therefore, the data are examined in the context of the First All-India Educational Survey. The recommendations of the Education Commission may be kept in view when planning location of schools on the basis of the present Survey data is undertaken in the States and Union Territories.
Findings of the First Survey 6. In 1957, 3,01,553 habitations (35.90 per cent) were served by secondary sections including 4,500 habitations (0.54 per cent) with secondary sections in them. It was visualized that after the implementation of the suggestions made in the report, the number of habitations served by secondary sections would be increased to 6,98,874 (83.20 per cent), including 13,487 habitations (1.61 per cent) with secondary sections in them. Even after the proposed planning, 1,41,159 habitations, i.e. 16.80 percent were to remain without secondary school facilities (Table 120).
Findings of the Present Survey 7. There are 16,231 habitations with secondary sections in them, i.e. 1.65 per cent. Deducting from this the figures for West Bengal, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Goa, Daman & Diu, Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands and Pondicherry, where the First Survey was not conducted, the number of habitations with secondary sections in them at present is 14,497 as compared to the 13,487 recommended in the proposals of the First Survey (Tables 117).
8. The number of habitations served by secondary sections is 6,01,154, i.e. 61.20 per cent. Excluding the areas not covered by the First Survey, the number of the habitations served is 5,41,008. The number and the percentage of habitations served at present is much less than the target of the First Survey in spite of the excess in the number of secondary sections established during the intervening period over the target of the First Survey.
9. Evaluating the present position in terms of population, it is seen that 71.37 per cent of the population are served by secondary sections including 9.09 per cent that have schools in their own habitations. On an average a secondary section serves about 17,500 of population. The average population of a habitation with secondary section in it is about 2,200.
10. In the population slab '5,000 and above', 425 habitations out of 553, i.e. 76.85 per cent, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included 240 habitations, i.e. 43.40 per cent, with secondary sections in them. The proposals envisaged that a total number of 336 habitations would be provided with secondary sections
SECONDARY EDUCATION 51
STATEMENT 24
DISTRIBUTION OF HABITATIONS AND POPULATION ACCORDING TO' SECONDARY SCHOOLING FACILITIES AVAILABLE
AT
VARYING DISTANCES IN RURAL AREAS
Number of Percentage Population Percentage
habitations
1 2 3 4 5
In the habitation 16,231 1.65 3,60,53,511 9.09
0.1 to 1.0 mile 93,341 9.50 4,28,72,599 10.81
1.1 to 2.0 miles 1,41,313 14.39 6,52,32,900 16.45
2.1 to 3.0 miles 1,48,028 15.07 6,39,59,986 16.13
3.1 to 4.0 miles 1,13,735 11.58 4,28,17,700 10.80
4.1 to 5.0 miles 88,506 9.01 3,21,16,349 8.10
Within the habitation or up to a
walking distance of five miles 6,01,154 61.20 28,30,53,045 71.37
More than 5 miles 3,81,097 38.80 11,35,27,078 28.63
Total 9,82,251 100.00 39,65,80,123 100.00
in them and 214 would be served by secondary sections in the neighbourhood. According to the present data, 1,881 habitations out of 2,000, i.e. 94.05 per cent are served by secondary sections including 1,333 habitations (66.65 per cent) with secondary sections in them. In terms of population, 94.55 per cent are served at present. In this slab the population not served at present constitute 0.65 per cent of the 'rural population not served' and 0. 19 per cent of the total rural population.
11. The number of habitations in the slab '2,000-4,999' was 11,563 on 31 March, 1957. These included 6,978 habitations (60.35 per cent) served by secondary sections of which 1, 630 (14. 10 per cent) had secondary sections in them. The proposal envisaged that 11,182 (96.71 per cent) habitations would be served by secondary sections including 3,884 habitations (33.59 per cent) with secondary sections in them. The number of habitations in this slab at present is 20,738 of which 17,248 (83.17 per cent) are served, including 5,789 habitations (27.91 per cent) with secondary sections in them. The percentage of habita- tions served by secondary sections in this slab is, therefore, less than the target of the First Survey. In this slab 84.52 per cent of the population are served at present and the population not served are 7.90 per cent of the 'rural population not served' and 2.26 per cent of the total rural population in the country.
12. As regards habitations in the slab '1,000-1,999,' of the total number of 41,386 habitations in the slab, 21,320 habitations (51.52 per cent) were served by secondary sections including 1,285 (7.41 per cent) with secondary sections in them. According to the proposals of the
52 SECOND ALL-INDIA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY
STATEMENT 25
HABITATIONS AND POPULATION IN VARIOUS POPULATION SLABS SERVED BY SECONDARY SECTIONS IN THEM OR WITHIN
A WALKING DISTANCE OF FIVE MILES IN RURAL AREAS
Population slab Total
Sl. Item of information 5,000 2,000- 1,000- 500- Below
No. and above 4,999 1,999 999 500
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Number of habitations 2,000 20,738 63,987 1,45,001 7,50,525 9,82,251
2. Habitations served by secondary
sections in them 1,333 5,789 4,281 2,518 2,310 16,231
3. Item 2 as % of item 1 66.65 27.91 6.69 1.74 0.31 1.65
4. Habitations served by second-
ary sections in them or within a
walking distance of five miles 1,881 17,248 48,597 1,01,980 4,31,448 6,01,154
5. Item 4 as % of item 1 94.05 83.17 75.95 70.33 57.49 61.20
6. Percentage of population ser-
ved by secondary sections in
their own habitations or with-
in a walking distance of five miles 94.55 84.52 77.56 71.52 59.70 71.37
STATEMENT 26
HABITATIONS NOT SERVED BY SECONDARY SECTIONS EITHER IN THEM OR WITHIN A WALKING DISTANCE OF FIVE MILES
IN RURAL AREAS
Column 3 as percentage of habitations
Population slab Number of habi- Habitations in the slab In the Not served by secondary In the rural areas
tations in the slab not served by secondary slab sections in them or with- in the country
sections in them or in a walking distance
within a walking distance of 5 miles
of 5 miles
1 2 3 4 5 6
5,000 and above 2,000 119 5.95 0.03 0.01
2,000 - 4,999 20,738 3,490 16.83 0.92 0.36
1,000 - 1,999 63,987 15,390 24.05 4.04 1.57
500 - 999 1,45,001 43,021 29.67 11.29 4.38
Below 500 7,50,525 3,19,077 42.51 83.73 32.48
ALL Slabs 9,82,251 3,81,097 38.80 100.00 38.80
SECONDARY EDUCATION 53
STATEMENT 27
POPULATION NOT SERVED BY SECONDARY SECTIONS EITHER IN THEIR OWN HABITATIONS OR WITHIN A WALKING
DISTANCE OF FIVE MILES IN RURAL AREAS
Column 3 as percentage of population
Population slab Population of the Population of the habi- In the Not served by secondary In the rural
habitations in the tations in the slab not slab sections in them or with- areas in
slab served by secondary in a walking distance of the country
sections in them or 5 miles
within a walking dis-
tance of 5 miles
1 2 3 4 5 6
5,000 and above 1,34,83,551 7,34,472 5.45 0.65 0.19
2,000 - 4,999 5,79,46,622 89,71,853 15.48 7.90 2.26
1,000 - 1,999 8,59,91,887 1,92,99,291 22.44 17.00 4.87
500 - 999 10,03,62,771 2,85,84,934 28.48 25.18 7.21
Below 500 13,87,95,292 5,59,36,528 40.30 49.27 14.10
All slabs 39,65,80,123 11,35,27,078 28.63 100.00 28.63
First Survey, the number of habitations served was to be increased to 38,370 (92.71 per cent). The number of habitations served at present is 48,597 out of 63,987, i.e. 75.95 per cent. The percentage of habitations served at present is, therefore, much below the target laid down in the First Survey. In terms of population, however, 77.56 per cent are served at present.
13. In the slab 'below 1,000', 34.69 per cent of the habitations were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957 while the target proposed was 82.49 per cent. According to the present data, only 59.57 per cent are served.
14. The existing backlog of habitations not served at present includes very few habitations in the population slab '5,000 and above'. About 5 per cent of the backlog is in the slab '1,000-4,999' and about 95 per cent in the slab 'below 1,000'. To what extent this backlog can be cleared and what percentage' would ultimately remain without secondary school facilities will be known only after the work of planning on, the basis of the present data has been completed in the various States and Union Territories. It is, however, obvious that the future programme will have to give special attention to the problem of smaller habitations. The recommendations of the Education Commission regarding the provision of hostel facilities at the secondary stage will have to be given special attention in the programme of future development.
15. The range of population served by secondary sections varies from 38.13 per cent in Rajasthan to 93.00 per cent in Kerala. The percentage is also very low in Madhya Pradesh. We shall now discuss the position separately for every State and Union Territory.
16. Andhra Pradesh On 31 March, 1957, 18,225 habitations, constituting 35.93 per cent of the rural habitations, were served by secondary sections, i.e. 35.93 per cent of the habitations were served by secondary sections either in them or within a walking distance of five miles. It was envisaged in the First Survey that the number of habitations served by secondary sections would be raised to 41,745, i.e. 82.30 per cent of the total, including 1,239 habitations that had secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 1,595 habitations have secondary sections in them. Thus, the number of habitations having secondary sections in them is more than what was envisaged under the proposals of the
54 SECOND ALL-INDIA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY
First Survey. Presumably, the increase is due to some extent to the increase in population in the rural areas. The proposals of the First Survey were based on the 1951 Census population estimates and the present data are based on the 1966 estimates of population. The number of habitations or groups of habitations with a population of '5,000 or above' has increased during the intervening period. The number of habitations served by secondary sections either within them or within a walking distance of five miles is 34,670 (64.36 per cent of rural habitations in the State). The target of the First Survey has, therefore, been underachieved by about 7,000 habitations. In spite of the excess in number of secondary sections in rural areas, the shortfall in the number of habitations served indicates the possibility of some unplanned location of the schools established during the intervening period. In terms of population, however, 73.52 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 16.63 per cent having secondary sections in their own habitations.
17. Assam In this State, 11,549 habitations, constituting 45.22 per cent of the rural habitations in the State, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included 285 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the proposals of the First Survey, the number of habitations with secondary sections in them was to be raised to 495 and the number of habitations served by secondary sections to 17,790, i.e. 69.65 per cent of the total. According to the present data, 692 habitations have secondary sections in them. The number of secondary sections in rural areas at present is more than was envisaged under the proposals of the First Survey. The number of habitations served by secondary sections at present is 20,760, i.e. 65.97 per cent of the total. The number of habitations served by secondary sections is more than was envisaged under the First Survey. The percentage, however, is smaller because the number of habitations at present is more than what it was in 1957. In terms of population, 78.21 per cent are served by secondary sections.
18. Bihar On 31 March, 1957, 62,048 habitations constituting 56.49 per cent of the rural habitations in the State were served by secondary sections. These included 868 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the proposals of the First Survey, it was envisaged that the number of habitations with secondary sections in them would be increased to 1,410.. The total number of habitations served. by secondary sections would be 1,06,953, i.e. 97.38 per cent of the total. According to the present data, 1,661 habitations have secondary sections in them. This figure is 251 more than that proposed in the First Survey. The number of habitations served by secondary sections is 84,648, i.e. 72.67 per cent of the total, which is much less than was envisaged under the First Survey. In terms of population, however, 84.16 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 5.99 per cent of the population that have secondary sections in their own habitations.
19. Gujarat The State of Gujarat was formerly a part of the erstwhile State of Bombay at the time of the First All-India Educational Survey. In the erstwhile State of Bombay, 15,301 habitations, constituting 20.09 per cent of the rural habitations, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included 293 habitations with secondary sections in them. It was envisaged that the percentage of habitations served by secondary sections would be raised to 58.44, including 2.41 that have secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 952 habitations, constituting 3.92 per cent of the rural habitations in the State, have secondary sections in them. The percentage of habitations served by secondary sections at present is 61.03 which is much below the target fixed for the erstwhile State of Bombay under the First Survey. In terms of population, however, 68.87 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 16.83 per cent that have secondary sections in their own habitations.
20. Jammu & Kashmir In this State, 1,419 habitations, constituting 13.09 per cent of the total number of rural habitations, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included 86 habitations with secondary sections in them. It was envisaged that as a result of the proposals of the First Survey, the number of habitations served by secondary sections would be increased to 2,800, i.e. 25.84 per cent of the total, including 164 habitations (1.51 per cent) having secondary sections in them. According to the present data, the number of habitations with secondary sections in them is 264 which is 100 more than was envisaged in the proposals of the First Survey. The total number of habitations served at present is 8,117, constituting 65.25 per cent of the rural habitations. Thus, the target of the habitations served by secondary sections has been exceeded by 5,317 habitations. The percentage of habitations served by secondary sections has been exceeded by 39.41. In terms of population, 78.21 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 8.72 per cent that have secondary sections in them. Considered in the context of the structure of habitations and the density of population in the State, these percentages show very significant achievement in the provision of secondary education in rural areas of the State.
21. Kerala On 31 March, 1957, 8,000 habitations, constituting 75.05 per cent of the habitations, were served
SECONDARY EDUCATION 55
by secondary sections. This percentage was the highest among all the States. According to the proposals of the First Survey, the number of habitations served was to be increased to 10,279, i.e. 96.43 per cent of the total, including 768 habitations having secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 929 habitations have secondary sections in them. Thus, the number of habitations with secondary sections in them is more than was proposed under the First Survey. At present, the total number of habitations having secondary sections in them or within a walking distance of three miles is 7,410, i.e. 73.19 per cent of the total rural habitations in the State. In Kerala, the criterion of distance for the school areas at secondary stage had been reduced from five miles to three miles. However, 88.36 per cent of the habitations are served by secondary sections within a walking distance of five miles. In terms of population, 80.83 per cent are served by secondary sections either in their own habitations or within a walking distance of three miles, and 93.00 per cent are served by secondary sections either in their own habitations or within a walking distance of five miles.
22. Madhya Pradesh In this State, 11,565 habitations, constituting 14.07 per cent of the rural habitations, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included only 112 habitations that had secondary sections in them. The position of secondary schooling facilities at the time of the First Survey was very poor in Madhya Pradesh. According to the proposals of the First Survey, the number of habitations served by secondary sections was to be increased to 45,742, i.e. 55.66 per cent of the total, including 1,060 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 694 habitations have secondary sections in them. Thus, there has been a serious shortfall in the number of habitations with secondary sections in them. The total number of habitations served at present is 31,287, i.e. 34.24 per cent of the total. Among all the States, this percentage is the lowest for Madhya Pradesh. The number of habitations served at present is much less than was envisaged in the proposals of the First Survey. In terms of population, however, 42.65 per cent are, served by secondary sections. This percentage is also very low as compared to the corresponding data for the other States in the country. Madhya Pradesh, therefore, lags behind in so far as the provision of secondary, education in rural areas is concerned.
23. Madras On 31 March, 1957, 31,721 habitations, constituting 64.14 per cent of the rural habitations, were served by secondary sections. This was a very high percentage compared to the corresponding figures for the other States. The number of habitations with secondary sections in them was 283 on 31 March, 1957. The proposals of the First Survey envisaged that the number of habitations served would be increased to 45,856, i.e. 88.39 per cent of the total, including 607 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 1,263 habitations have secondary sections in them. This figure is more than twice that envisaged in the proposals of the First Survey. The number of habitations served at present is 43,474, i.e. 83.59 per cent of the total. In spite of the excess in the number of the secondary sections pointed out above, the number of habitations served is less than was envisaged in the First Survey. In terms of population, however,88.67 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 10.53 per cent that have secondary sections in their own habitations.
24. Maharashtra This state was a part of the erstwhile State of Bombay at the time of the First Survey. In the erstwhile Bombay State, 20.09 per cent of the habitations were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957, and it was envisaged that this percentage would be raised to 58.44. According to the present data, 1,908 habitations, constituting 2.93 per cent of the rural habitations, have secondary sections in them. The total number of rural habitations with secondary sections in them at present is more than was envisaged in the proposals for the erstwhile State of Bombay. At present, 64.39 per cent of the habitations are served by secondary sections which is more than the target for the erstwhile Bombay State. In terms of population, 74.62 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 16.88 per cent that have secondary sections in their own habitations.
25. Mysore In this State, 20,810 habitations, constituting 51.59 per cent of the rural habitations in the State, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included only 147 habitations with secondary sections in them. The proposals of the First Survey envisaged that the number of habitations served would be increased to 38,041, i.e. 94.31 per cent, including 578 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 887 habitations in the State have secondary sections in them. Thus, in Mysore also the number of habitations with secondary sections in them at present is more than was envisaged under the First Survey. The total number of habitations served at present is 24,788, i.e. 61.81 per cent of the total, which is much less than the proposed target under the First Survey. In spite of the excess in the number of secondary sections or in the number of habitations with secondary sections in them, the shortfall in the habitations served by secondary sections indicates that many deviations have
56 SECOND ALL-INDIA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY
been made from the proposals of the First Survey. In terms of population, however, 67.28 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 10.77 per cent served by secondary sections in their own habitations.
26. Orissa On 31 March, 1957, 18,570 habitations, constituting 36.09 per cent of the rural habitations in the State, were served by secondary sections. These included 204 habitations with secondary sections in them. The proposals of the First Survey envisaged that the number of habitations served would be increased to 39,113, i.e. 76.02 per cent of the total, including 464 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 801 habitations have secondary sections in them. The number of habitations with secondary sections in them is much greater than was envisaged under the First Survey. The number of habitations served at present is 36,416 i.e. 53.26 per cent of the total. The number of habitations served at present is slightly less than the target of the First Survey but in terms of percentage, there has been a serious shortfall. This is mainly on account of the increase in the number of habitations during the intervening period. It would also imply that the number of habitations without secondary sections at present is much more than was envisaged under the proposals of the First Survey. In terms of population, 65.10 per cent are served by secondary sections. All habitations in the slab '5,000 and above' have secondary sections except one habitation which does not have a secondary section even within a walking distance of five miles. The percentages of habitations in the slabs '2,000-4,999' and 1,000-1,999' not served by secondary sections are relatively small. The percentages of habitations not served in the slabs 'below 1,000' are, however, higher. About 50 per cent' of the habitations with a population of 'below 500' are not served by secondary sections at present.
27. Punjab On 31 March, 1957, 19,184 habitations, constituting 68.82 per cent of the total, were served by secondary sections. This was a very high percentage compared to the corresponding figures for the other States. The number of habitations with secondary sections in them on 31 March, 1957 was 578. The proposals of the First Survey envisaged that the number of habitations served by secondary sections would be increased to 27,540, i.e. 98.79 per cent of the total, including 938 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the present data, the number of habitations having secondary sections in them is 968. This is slightly higher than the target of the First Survey.. The number of habitations served at present is 23,309, i.e. 81.38 per cent of the total which is less than the target of the First Survey. In terms of population, 87.11 per cent are served by secondary sections. This percentage is very high compared to the figures for most of the other States.
28. Rajasthan In this State, 8,115 habitations, constituting 17.33 per cent of the rural habitations, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included 59 habitations with secondary sections in them. These figures were very low compared to the corres- ponding figures for most of the other States. It was envisaged under the First Survey that the number of habitations served would be increased to 43,921, i.e 93.79 per cent of the total and these would include 1,037 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the present data, only 399 habitations have secondary sections in them. There has, therefore, been a considerable shortfall in the number of secondary sections opened in rural areas compared to the proposals of the First Survey. The number of habitations served by secondary sections at present is 17,686, constituting only 35 per cent of the total number of rural habitations in the State. Here also, the shortfall in achievement has been serious. In terms of population, however, 38.13 per cent are served by secondary sections. This is the lowest figure among all the States. In the slab '5,000 and above', 25 habitations out of 114 do not have secondary sections even within a walking distance of five miles. In the slab '2,000-4,999', 504 habitations out of 937 are without secondary sections even within a walking distance of five miles. Similarly, the percentages of habitations not served by secondary sections in the other slabs are very high.
29. Uttar Pradesh In this State, 69,493 habitations, constituting 29.50 per cent of the rural habitations, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. The number of habitations with secondary sections in them on 31 March, 1957 was 539. These figures were very low compared to the figures for most of the States. The target of the First Survey envisaged that the number of habitations served would be increased to 2,21,034, i.e. 93.86 per cent of the total, including 2,648 habitations with secondary sections in them. The data of the present. Survey reveal that 1,214 habitations in the State have secondary sections in them. This figure is much below the target of the First Survey. It is about 46 per cent of the figure proposed under the First Survey. The number of habitations served at present is 1,39,285, i.e. 57.99 per cent of the total. This is also much below the corresponding target set under the First Survey. In terms of population 61.63 per cent are served by secondary sections which is fairly low. 30. West Bengal The First Survey was not organized in West Bengal. According to the present data, 58,029
SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL 57
habitations, i.e. 85.71 per cent are served by secondary sections. Compared to corresponding figures for most of the States, this figure for West Bengal is very high. In terms of population, 88.53 per cent are served by secondary sections, including 7.27 per cent that have secondary sections in their own habitations.
31. Himachal Pradesh It has been pointed out earlier that this is a hilly area consisting mainly of tiny habitations. On 31 March, 1957, 3,976 habitations, i.e. 31.13 per cent of the total were served by secondary sections. These included 37 habitations with secondary sections in them. The proposals of the First Survey envisaged that the number of habitations served would be increased to 11,047, i.e. 86.49 per cent of the total, including 166 habitations with secondary sections in them. According to the present data, 110 habitations have secondary sections in them. This is much below the proposals of the First Survey. The number of habitations served at present is 7,036, i.e. 39.04 per cent of the total. In terms of population, 46.31 per cent are served by secondary sections. If, keeping in view the terrain in this area, the convenient walking distance is fixed at three miles, 28.54 per cent of the population can be considered to be served by secondary sections.
32. Manipur Manipur is also a Union Territory where the terrain is mainly hilly and the habitations are, by and large, very small. Only 484 habitations, constituting 25.12 per cent of the total, were served by secondary sections on 31 March, 1957. These included 21 habitations with secondary sections in them. The proposals under the First Survey envisaged that the number of habitations served would be increased to 739, i.e. 38.35 per cent of the total, including 32 habitations with secondary section in them. According to the present data, 121 habitations have secondary sections in them. This is far more than the proposals of the First Survey. The number of habitations served at present is 1,476, i.e. 52.60 per cent of the total. Here also the target of the First Survey has been exceeded. In terms of, population, 70.71 per cent are served by secondary sections. Keeping in view the hilly terrain in the Union Territory, if the limit of the walking distance for the secondary stage is reckoned as three miles, 61.90 per cent of the population can be said to be served by secondary sections.
33. Tripura The position in this territory on 31 March, 1957, was that 858 habitations, constituting 16.53 per, cent of the rural habitations, were served by secondary sections. These included 21 habitations with secondary sections in them. The proposal under the First Survey was that the number of habitations served would be increased to 1,429 i.e. 27.54 per cent of the total, including 29 habitations with secondary sections in them. The present data show that 39 habitations have secondary sections in them. In Tripura also, the target under the First Survey has been exceeded so far as habitations with secondary sections in them are concerned. The total number of habitations served at present is 2,315, i.e. 40.07 per cent of the total. These figures are also higher than the proposals of the First Survey.
34. Dadra & Nagar Haveli This is a very small Union Territory. There are no habitations at all in the slabs '2,000-4,999' and '5,000 and above'. Only two habitations belong to the population slab '1,000- 1,999' and both of them have secondary sections in them. There are six habitations in the slab '500-999' and all of them are served by secondary sections within a walking distance of three miles. In the slab 'below 500', 348 habitations out of 449 do not have secondary sections even within five miles. In this territory, 36.90 per cent of the population are served by secondary sections.
35. Goa, Daman & Diu The present position regarding the provision of secondary schooling facilities is fairly satisfactory. It has been found that 84.24 per cent of the population are served by secondary sections, including 8.86 per cent that have secondary sections in their own habitations.
36. Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands This Union Territory comprises ten small islands. Three islands have secondary sections in them. The question of walking distance in the case of other islands without secondary sections does not arise. This, however, should not give the impression that the remaining islands are without secondary education facilities. The secondary schools are residential and the administration provides liberal scholarships for those inhabitants of school-less islands who desire secondary education.
37. Pondicherry The persent position regarding secondary schooling facilities in Pondicherry is more satisfactory than in any other Union Territory. At present 98.95 per cent of the population are served by secondary sections.
SECONDARY SECTIONS 38. The secondary stage comprises different classes in different States and Union Territories. There are two types of secondary sections. Some secondary sections are called 'high schools' and others have classes up to the higher secondary stage. In some States there are secondary schools of one of the two patterns while in other States both systems are prevalent. The proportion of higher secondary sections in the States that have both patterns varies from State to State. In some
58 SECOND ALL-INDIA EDUCATIONAL SURVEY
States, along with the higher secondary schools, there are pre- university classes also, corresponding to the final year of the higher secondary stage. The P.U.C. is often a part of college and hence the data of these classes have not been included in the present Survey. In Uttar Pradesh, however, enrolment up to the intermediate stage has been included in the secondary stage. In the present Survey, the data of all secondary sections have been pooled together, irrespective of whether they are in high schools or higher secondary schools.
39. There are 26,883 secondary sections in the country. Of these, 26.81 per cent are S schools, 48.64 per cent are part of MS schools and 24.54 per cent are part of PMS schools. The percentage of secondary sections which are S schools is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. It will be seen later on in this Chapter that the secondary sections in rural areas are of relatively smaller size.
STATEMENT 28
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SECONDARY SECTIONS ACCORDING TO THEIR BEING S SCHOOLS OR PARTS OF MS OR PMS SCHOOLS
Item Rural areas Urban areas Total
1 2 3 4
Total number of secondary sections 16,285 10,598 26,883
S schools as % of secondary sections in the area 34.38 15.18 26.81
Secondary sections of MS schools as % of secondary sections in the area 43.93 55.89 48.64
Secondary sections of PMS schools as % of secondary sections in the area 21.69 28.93 24.54
The problems due to their small size would be aggravated as a result of their independent existence. If a secondary section of relatively smaller size is combined with a middle section, the conditions would be relatively more favourable for providing various facilities at lower cost. It is for a separate study to find out why in the rural areas such a large percentage of secondary sections are S schools. It is possible that in many places, the administration of the middle stage is in the hands of one kind of agency while the administration of secondary education is in the hands of a different agency. The two agencies might have failed to co-operate and, therefore, separate small units are in existence. This, however, is only a hypothesis which needs to be followed up.
40. Of the 26,883 sections in the country, 60.58 per cent are in rural areas and 39.42 per cent are in urban areas. Compared to the corresponding percentages for the primary and middle sections, the percentage of secondary sections in rural areas is relatively low. 41. In the country as a whole, 54 secondary sections are available per million of population, i.e. there is one secondary section for every 18,500 of population. There is considerable variation in the number of secondary sections available per million of population in the different States and Union Territories. While making inter-State comparisons, it must be borne in mind that the average size of a secondary section varies from State to State (Table 124).
42. The number of teachers available per million of population is 561. Because the classes constituting the secondary stage vary among the States and higher secondary sections exist in different proportions in different States, the inter-State comparison of teachers available may be made keeping these factors in view (Table 124).
Size of Secondary Sections 43. The question of size is more important at the secondary stage than at the primary and middle stages. In the Report of the Education Commission 1964-66 the following suggestions have been made :
7.60.
Secondary Schools. 7.61. The policy implications are clear. An effort has to be made to slow down the proliferation of small and uneconomic institutions. It should be difficult for new secondary schools to
SECONDARY EDUCATION 59
be established except in areas where a clear local need can be proved and where there is a reasonable chance of the new school growing to a reasonable size within five years or so. To achieve this, it is desirable to prescribe stringent conditions for recognition and to enforce them strictly. A good working rule would be to establish a secondary school serving a radius of five to seven miles with a total population coverage of 10,000 to 15,000; and to adopt the practice of providing transport in the form of a bicycle to students who live at comparatively long distances, and hostel facilities, where necessary. In certain areas, secondary schools have already proliferated to such an extent that it is not the establishment of new secondary schools, but the consolidation of existing ones that is the urgent need of the day.
Keeping these recommendations of the Education Commission in view, the data of the secondary sections may be examined with regard to their size.
Average number of Pupils and Teachers at the Secondary stage 44. On an average a secondary section in the country has 232 pupils. The corresponding figures for rural and urban areas are 168 and 329 respectively (Table 125).
45. In the rural areas, the average enrolment in secondary sections in the various States varies considerably. In Jammu & Kashmir, a secondary section, on an average, has only 59 pupils which implies that in this State there are a number of secondary sections with enrolment below 59 each. In Kerala, on the other hand, the average enrolment per secondary section in rural areas is 517. The averages are also below all India average in the case of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Goa, Daman & Diu, Himachal Pradesh, L.M. & A. Islands, Manipur, Pondicherry and Tripura.
46. In the urban areas, the average enrolment per secondary section among the States varies from 162 in West Bengal to 623 in Kerala. Secondary sections in the urban areas of Kerala tend to be fairly large. The averages are also low in the case of Andhra Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Delhi, Goa, Daman & Diu, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Pondicherry and Tripura. The low average for secondary sections in Delhi is rather surprising. It is possible that this may be due to difficulties in getting buildings of bigger size. This, however, needs to be checked in a separate study.
Average number of Teachers in a Secondary Section 47. On an average, a secondary section in the country has ten teachers (Table 125). The corresponding figures for rural and urban areas are eight and 14 respectively. The variation in the averages for the various States and Union Territories is partly on account of the variation in the average enrolment in different States. The other reasons for the same may be the variation in the classes constituting the secondary stage, the extent to which diversification of courses has been introduced,and the policies regarding appointment of teachers in the various States and Union Territories.
48. Whatever be the pattern of classes at the secondary stage in a State or a Union Territory, it cannot be denied that the secondary sections must have a certain minimum enrolment in order to be economically viable units. The data of the various States are examined and compared with this point specially in view.
Secondary Sections according to Teachers and Enrolment 49. In rural areas, 41.52 per cent of the secondary sections have enrolment up to 100 only (Table 128). The percentages of secondary sections in rural areas with enrolment up to 100 are fairly high in Andhra Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Goa, Daman & Diu, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura (Table 134). The Education Commission have recommended a minimum enrolment of 240 for a secondary section. If 241 is fixed as the minimum enrolment to suit the class intervals in our tables, 79.55 per cent of the secondary sections in rural areas would not fulfil this condition. The percentages of secondary sections in rural areas that do not fulfil this condition are very high in all the States and Union Territories except Kerala.
STATEMENT 29
CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTIONS OF SECONDARY SECTIONS ACCORDING TO ENROLMENT
Percentage of secondary sections with enrolment up to
Area
100 140 180 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 Over 520
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Rural 41.52 56.77 68.24 79.55 84.25 87.39 90.01 91.84 93.35 94.50 95.48 100.00
Urban 19.35 29.40 37.83 48.80 55.62 61.47 66.40 70.86 74.56 77.82 80.91 100.00
All areas 32.78 45.98 56.27 67.45 72.99 77.20 80.73 83.60 85.97 87.96 89.77 100.00