The indigenous system of education also needs to be studied. The Third Survey noted Kumar's (1975) work on the development of Sanskrit education during British rule. Awasthi (1985) has made an appraisal of indigenous efforts for development of education during the period 1834 to 1947. Information was collected from old religious texts, epics, puranas and other sources.
Among the new trends noticeable is the use of literary sources. Samar (1985) evaluates the role of early Urdu novels in spreading modem education among Muslim women. The study is based on content analysis of Urdu novels written during the late 19th century and early 20th century. Parmar (1986) has compiled educational references in selected Gujarati social novels published during 1937-47 and 1967-77. Fifty novels per decade, i.e. 100 novels in all, were selected for study. In all 620 educational references were compiled from these, which were then analysed and criticized.
The evolution of the concept of education in the social and cultural context is the subject of Desai's study (1987). He has looked at the concept of education as it has evolved from ancient Greece and Rome to the present time.
Saxena's (1986) thesis is more in the area of philosophy of education, but the methodology adopted is historical. It is an enquiry into the educational philosophy of British Idealism with special reference to T.H. Green and B. Bosanquet. This trend of looking at educational developments outside India is most welcome. Das (1986) studies education in post-Mao China (1976-80). More comparative studies should be encouraged.
Mention should be made of projects to collect source materials on educational history. A project on the publication of selections from educational records is located at the Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. It has published two volumes, one on the Indian Education Service, 1859- 79 and another on Indian Universities, 1919-1920. Three more volumes, `Indian Education Service, 1879-96', `Technical Education in India, 1907-21', and `Landmarks in Indian Education, 1898-1908' have been completed. Two volumes on `Women's Education, 1854-1921', are under preparation. The NCERT has set up an Educational Archive and is going to conduct research projects and bring out publications of selected documents on different aspects of the history of Indian education The National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration has taken up a study on the Organizational History of the Ministry of Education.
While these new trends are to be welcomed, many areas remain unexplored. For instance, while the impact of education on caste mobility has been studied by sociologists (Hardgrave, 1969; Bailey, 1958; Lynch, 1969; Cohn, 1961), historians have yet to study the edu- cational activities of caste associations (Caroll, 1973, 1976; Rudolph and Rudolph, 1971), and examine the connections between education and Sanskritization in a historical perspective. While Anglo-Indian education has been studied by D'Souza (1976), there is no good systematic study on the education of Indian Muslims or Jains or Parsis. Sociologists have examined the problems of scheduled castes and education but not historians (Chitnis, 1981).
We need to know about educational movements among the working classes and the interest displayed by trade unions in education. Thompson, for instance, has shown how an eagerness for learning and an enthusiasm for the printed word were an important element in the radical culture of the English working class (Thompson, 1963; Webb, 1955; Brian Simon, 1965).
While economists have studied the causes of educated unemployment (Blaug, Layard, Woodhall, 1969), the problems of manpower and educational development (Burgess, Layard, Pant, 1968) and the importance of investment in human resources (Harbinger, 1966), historians have still to answer the vexing question of the ways in which education has influenced
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economic growth.
The history of education thus touches upon numerous varieties of history. To obtain evidence about the quantity and, even more, the quality of education in the past is a difficult task and requires an interdisciplinary approach. The history of Indian education is an important area of study, the full potentialities of which are only just beginning to be exploited, Educationists and historians need to do cooperative research in the field of history of education.
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ABSTRACTS: 48-81 48. ACHARYA, S., Education in Bengal (1813-59)-A Historical Study and Analysis, Ph.D. Hist., Burd. U., 1980
The study sought to analyse and explain the emergence and growth of a new education system in Bengal (1813-59) and its role in the advent of modem waves in Bengali society. The chronological limit of the study was set by the Charter of 1813 and Lord Stanley's Descartes of 1859.
The study was based on available original official and non- official records at the National Archives, West Bengal State Archives and the institutional records of Presidency College, Hooghly Mohsin College, Serampore Missionary College, Bethune College at Calcutta and Krishnanath College of Berhampore. Nonofficial sources, including contemporary missionary tracts, reports and journals and other printed records were also consulted.
The major issues discussed and the outcomes of the study were: 1. A brief sketch of the evangelical and utilitarian movements which dominated British liberal ideas and found expression through T.B. Macaulay in Bengal. 2. The state of classical Hindu and Islamic education in the first half of the 19th century and official efforts to revive them by adaptation with western culture. 3. The state of vernacular mass education in the early 19th century and the official policy to encourage it. 4. Evolution of higher education in Bengal from Bentinck's Resolution of 1835 to Stanley's Dispatch of 1859. 5. An account of official and non-official enterprises in stimulating awareness of the need for vernacular mass education in Bengal. 6. Some special aspects of new education in Bengal like female education, professional education, etc. 7. Nature and causes of slow development of a central authority for educational supervision from the early amateur bodies to ultimate assumption of government control. 8. Explanation of the growth of the new elite and its role in the modernization of the Bengal society. 9. Stress on the analysis of the development of education from inside along with the larger social context in which the educational institutions had to grow.
49. AWASTHI, K.K., A Critical Appraisal of Indigenous Efforts for Development of Education during the period 1834 to 1947, Ph.D. Edu., Avadh U., 1985
The study aimed at a critical evaluation of the indigenous efforts for the spread of education during the period 1834 to 1947.
The investigator tried to follow the historical method and collected data regarding various efforts made for expansion of education during the period studied. Information regarding indigenous system of education was collected from primary sources such as old religious texts, epics, Puranas, reports of various commissions and committees and the works of various educationists and religious reformers.
The author observed: 1. In ancient times education was imparted in the gurukuls which were managed by individual teachers. During the Muslim period, education was imparted in maktabs and madrasas. When the Europeans came to India, Christian missionaries accompanied them and they laid the foundation of a modem system of education in India. 2. Indian religious reformers like Swami Vivekananda, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayananda and Anni Besant also played an important role in giving shape to the Indian system of education. 3. During the freedom movement, attention was paid to reforms in education. The Sargent scheme was formulated for the reconstruction of the educational system after the Second World War. 4. In earlier times private initiative played a very important role in the spread of education, but after the attainment of independence, government had to assume the responsibility for provision of education. Consequently, during the post-independence period, government played a more important role in the spread of education in India.
50. AYYAR, C., The New Education and Intellectual Pursuits in Bengal from 1817 to 1857, Ph.D. Hist., Jad. U., 1984
The work aimed to discussing the spread of the New Education in Bengal during the 40 years between the foundation of Hindu College in 1817 to the establishment of Calcutta University in 1857, and the intellectual pursuits that emerged largely in response to it. The study began with a description of the system of indigenous education in Bengal prevalent in the early 19th century, the causes of the inclination of the Bengali upper and middle classes to the New Education after the establishment of British power in India, leading to the establishment of English schools and colleges in Bengal of which the most important was Hindu College, founded in 1817. Thereafter, the work discusses the foundation and growth of the Calcutta School Book Society (1817), the Calcutta School Society (1818), and the Hindu College between
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1857; the life and works of David Hare, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and the activities of the promoters of New Learning like Ram Kamal Sen, Raja Radha Kanta Dev, Moti Lal Seal and others; the role of Henry L. V. Derozio in disseminating radical, political, and social ideas of the West among the youth of Bengal; the Christian missionaries in the spread of higher education; women's education; the educational policy of the British government from 1813 till 1857; the activities of various societies of Indian and Indo-European origin interested in the social welfare and intellectual development of the people through writings and translations and other manifold activities; the growth and development of professional education in Bengal-medical, legal and engineering; and, finally, the merits and demerits of the new education, as it developed in Bengal during the years 1817-57.
The methodology was historical, library-based study and analysis of various authoritative works in English and Bengali, contemporary pamphlets and tracts, accounts of foreign visitors, contemporary newspapers and periodicals, parliamentary papers, gazetteers and other official publications, besides unpublished archival records. The sources were mainly in the National Library of Calcutta, the Calcutta University Library, the Asiatic Society's Library, the Carey Library of Serampore, the Bangiya Sahitya Parishad Library, the archives and other university libraries.
The new education brought about a profound change in outlook on life and society in Bengal, but, unfortunately, this remained confined to a small section of the people, and failed to produce any economic and social transformation. Its benefits were reaped by a handful of people who came to form the new elite separated from the masses by their learning, wealth and social influence.
51. BAIS, H.S., A Historical Survey of Educational Ad- ministration in India (from Early European Settlers to Transfer of Power in Indian Hands, i.e. 1600 A.D. to 1920 A.D.), Ph.D. Edu., DHSGVV, 1985
The objectives of the study were (i) to present a systematic record of development of the department of education in the major provinces under the British rule from AD 1600 to 1920, (ii) to study the procedure of direction and control of education, (iii) to trace the extension and expansion in the staff and line agencies of the department of education in the major provinces, (iv) to study the role of inspecting officers and involvement of other agencies in the control of education, and (v) to record the expansion in the function of departmental officers.
The study involved the methodology of historical research. The relevant data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data involved the letters, minutes, dispatches, resolutions, notes, rules and regulations, and reports mostly avail- able at the National Archives, New Delhi, and National Library, Calcutta. The major secondary sources used were books and government publications, commission reports and other similar publications.
The major conclusions drawn were: 1. With the constitutional reforms, the Government of India was prevented, by the constitutional position, from giving further direction and financial help to the provinces for education. The minister for education in each state was made responsible for educational policy and directing its execution. Under the minister in each province, there was a secretary to the government for education, who used to be from the Indian Civil Service. He was a superior officer to the Director of Public Instruction (DPI) and was responsible for passing orders on behalf of the government in respect of education. In certain provinces, like the Central Provinces and Punjab, the DPI was also secretary or undersecretary to the government. In the United Provinces, the DPI held the charge at deputy-secretary level but a secretary was placed over him. In the Central Provinces and Punjab, as there was no separate secretary, the DPI dealt directly with the concerned minister and passed orders for the government. The main function of the secretary was to examine and criticize the proposals of the director from the point of view of broad policy and in the light of the fi- nancial position of the government. 2. The permanent administrative head of the education department in all the provinces was the DPI. He was the expert advisor to the minister in matters of policy. He had multifarious duties like organizing the training of teachers at pri- mary and secondary level, considering disciplinary cases, acting as an ex-officio member of the governing authorities of local universities, advising government on appointing suitable applicants to posts under their control, etc. The DPI was chosen from the Indian Educational Service (IES). Members of this service were either employed in administrative jobs or in teaching. To assist the DPI in all the provinces, headquarters' staff was provided. These were mostly senior officers, both of the provincial and IES cadre. But the staff provided
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was not adequate; especially girls' education lacked expert guidance. There were only two provinces (Madras and Punjab) where woman officers worked at the head- pert guidance. There were only two provinces (Madras quarters. 3. In each of the provinces, the inspecting staff consisted of men and women. The inspectorate in each province formed a hierarchy with divisional inspectors assisted by deputy or assistant inspectors in each division. In each district there was a district inspector assisted by deputy district inspector, assistant and sub-inspector. In addition to the inspecting staff, there were various inspecting posts for special purposes. These in- cluded inspectors for European schools, Mohammedan schools, vernacular schools, Sanskrit schools, medical inspectors and super-visors for manual training. This system was almost alike in all the provinces, although the officers were designated differently in some cases. But the inspecting staff was not only inadequate but also untrained and under-qualified. Each inspecting officer had anything from 57 to 142 schools under his charge. 4. Keeping to the spirit of local self- government, the devolution of administrative powers to local bodies took place with little variation. Through various enactments passed in the provincial legislatures, the process of devolution was further accelerated. In Madras, the district boards and municipalities managed and maintained secondary schools, whereas, talk boards, village panchayats and municipalities maintained primary schools. The members of these boards were elected, but there was also a provision for nominated members on these boards. The presidents of the district boards were nominated by the government or elected from amongst the members, at the discretion of the government. The district boards or municipalities were bound by the authority of the government to sanction the opening or closing of secondary schools. 5. The control of primary education was vested in the district educational councils which were statutory ad hoc bodies constituted in each district. This body consisted of members elected by district boards, municipalities, taluk boards and other associations managing elementary education. The government nominated some members to these boards. The collectors and the inspectors were ex-officio members of the boards. The boards were empowered to prepare schemes for the expansion of elementary education in each taluk and municipal area. Although, in all the provinces, the working of the local authorities was not very satisfactory, it displayed the syndrome of the political future of India. 6. After 1854, the education department in each province acted directly under the orders of the provincial government and had a system of its own. But the Government of India was still supreme. This phase of centralization came to an end with the resolution of the Government of India dated 14 December, 1870. This brought an important change in the system in both its financial and administrative aspects. The provincial government was given a large measure of financial autonomy. The phase of 1882 to 1900 could be characterized as one of further decentralization of educational administration, because it called for increased local participation in the management and maintenance of education. This period reflected the development of private enterprise in education. Here local authorities gained more powers in affairs of managing and controlling schools in these areas. 7. The period stretching from 1900 to 1920 marked a further change and shift in the process of devolution of authority which was finally transferred to Indian hands. 8. Although the period under study, a special feature was the coordination of the education department with revenue department. The district magistrate and subordinate staff down to the naib tehsildar were required to visit schools. On their visits, they were required to inspect schools and check the state of affairs of the schools and report to the higher officials of the education department.
52. BARMAN, S., The Origin and Development of Modern Science in Pre-independence India, Ph.D. Hist., Gau. U., 1983
The main aim of the research was to study the origin and development of modern science in pre-independence period. The historical survey method was adopted.
Some of the major conclusions were 1. Modem science grew in India as part of the British occupation in the country. It was primarily an extension of British science and purported to serve the needs of the colonial power. 2. Modem science was introduced by the British in the 19th century and found a base in the country in the 20th century. But the growth of modern science in India, unlike that in Europe, was more or less stunted. Let alone the British period, even now the benefits of modem science have failed to reach the illiterate masses so as to form an integral part of the national culture. 3. Science still appeared as something alien and imposed from a foreign world. 4. There were ideological and social constraints on the development of science in British India.
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53. BASU, S., Indigenous Education in Bengal (1835-82), Ph.D. Hist, Jad U., 1977