fore, this survey must be viewed within the context of trends in the field since the sixties as a part of the total research in education in India.
In Table 4.2 we give a university-wise break-up of the studies. Table 4.3 sets out information on the sources of funding and institutional location of the research projects while Table 4.4 gives the distribution of states from which field data were collected.
THEMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF STUDIES The studies have been classified on the basis of themes. Studies on students, teachers and other components of the educational system have been placed together since this seemed the most feasible arrangement. There are some cross-cultural studies based on comparisons of samples of students or teachers from India and another country. However, since all these studies have used survey techniques, the unit of study is the individual who
Table 4.3
NAME OF INSTITUTION AND SOURCE OF FUNDING OF PROJECTS
Funding Wherever Mentioned
Institu- Not UNESCO ICSSR NCERT UNICEF Total
tion mentiond*
NIEPA 2 1 3
IIE 5 5
NIRD 1 1
SNDT
Univ. 1 1
Calcutta
Univ. 2 2
Bihar Tri-
bal Wel-
fare Res.
Institute 1 1
Kalyani
Univ. 1 1
Ranchi
Univ. 1 1
NCERT 1 1 2
Kumaon
Univ. 1 1
Total 12 1 2 2 1 18
* Where the source of funding is not mentioned, it is assumed that the project was conducted with funds from the respective institution.
Table 4.4
STATES IN WHICH FIELDWORK WAS CONDUCTED
States and Up to 61-70 71-75 76-80 81-82 83-87 Total
Union 1960
Territories
Andhra Pradesh - - - 4 2 3 9
Assam - - - - 1 2 3
Bihar - 2 - - 2 4 8
Gujarat - - - 1 2 14 17
Haryana - - - - 1 - 1
Himachal - - - - 1 3 4
Pradesh
Jammu and - - - - - 3 3
Kashmir
Karnataka - - - - - 4 4
Kerala - - - 1 2 2 5
Madhya
Pradesh - - - - 1 1 2
Maharashtra - - - 2 - 8 10
Meghalaya - - 1 - - - 1
Nagaland - - - - - 1 1
Orissa - - - - - 1 1
Punjab - - - - 2 7 9
Rajasthan - - - 1 - 4 5
Tamil Nadu - - - - 1 5 6
Uttar Pradesh - - 2 4 7 21 34
West Bengal 2 2 - - 2 5 11
Delhi - - - 1 2 6 9
Cross-cultural
Others, not
stated - 1 1 1 2 7 12
Total 2 5 4 15 28 101 155
has been administered structural tests and interviews. No effort is made to compare the social contexts of the two samples (for example, India and Bangladesh). Therefore, we have clubbed them with other studies on thematic lines. It may also be mentioned that, while we have divided the studies into sub-groups. they do not constitute water-tight compartments.
The studies are reviewed theme-wise below.
Education as a Social System Education is a part of the larger system as well as a system in itself. The social background of the students and its interaction with the school setting has important im-
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 121
plications for students and teachers. While one may view social background as an extension of the system of social through the school and classroom situtation and its im- stratification, it is also possible to focus on its impact pact on performance, achievement, etc. We have therefore included such studies under this category.
Studies on social background and other economic and cultural background variables and their relationship with or influence on academic achievement, intelligence, personality, attitudes, values, etc., also fall in this group. These studies can be further subdivided into
(1) those which relate socio-economic and cultural background variables to cognitive and psychological variables such as academic achievement, performance, intelligence, self- concept, self-esteem, language, reading efficiency, personality adjustment, achievement motivation, life tendencies and meaning of success, etc.;
(2) those which relate socio-economic background to social factors and values such as social com- petence, development of moral concepts and moral judgement, educational development, marital role, attitudes to population and sex education and female education;
(3) those which provide a demographic profile of some socio-economic cultural variables such as social background, life-styles, leisure-time ac- tivities, etc., and
(4) those which focus on social and psychological variables such as attitudes, values, self-concept, self-esteem, personality, etc. The socioeconomic variables and their relationship to, or impact on attitudes and values, etc. are either not included in the design of the study or are not as crucial and explicit as in the first or second sub-set. The main purpose is to relate a set of individual or personality variables or attitudes or values to another set of individual variables or to find their distribution.
School as a Social System Education as a system in itself consists of various parts or sub- systems-students, teachers, parents, staff, etc. Each of these perform functions for the smooth and harmonious functioning of the educational system. (i) Teachers are an important component and their role perceptions, role-conflict and job-satisfaction form the sub- theme of this set of studies. (ii) A few studies which view the school in its totality, as a system, fall in the second category under this sub-theme.
Education and Society The discussion on education as a sub-system also brings into focus its interrelationship with the other subsystems, namely, stratification, economy, politics, etc. This includes studies which focus on various functions of education which impinge on the other sub-systems of society. Thus, the functions that receive attention are socialization, social and occupational mobility, equality, social change and modernization. The importance of education in promoting mobility, change, modernization and development have been the concerns of the political and intellectual elite of the emerging nations. It continues to attract the attention of those interested in sociology, in spite of widespread disappointment with its contribution to equality, mobility and change in our society.
Thus we have clubbed together studies on socialization, social and occupational mobility, social change and modernization. This is sub-divided into studies which (i) presume a relationship between education and mobility or change to be given and set out to explore it, and (ii) those which view education as a change agent in the formulation of the research design, and state it in the form of hypothesis or objective.
Education and Politics Here we group together studies which focus on the relationship between politics and education or on the political dimension of the educational system, namely, political socialization and leadership, student activism, unrest and indiscipline.
Dysfunctions The study of the functions of education assumes that the educational system is part of a wider social system, namely, the society. However, systems do develop aberrations, or there may be lack of fit between subsystems. These are referred to as dysfunctions in the functional paradigm. Therefore, in this sub-group we include studies which focus on dropouts, juvenile delinquency, problems of adjustment and children of `criminal tribes', etc. Studies on student unrest and indiscipline can also be included here but, as mentioned earlier, some amount of overlap is unavoidable.
122 KARUNA CHANANA
Programmes and Policies Studies focusing on the utility and benefits of various educational and welfare programmes, policies and facilities provided by the government fall in this category.
The thematic distribution of studies is presented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5
THEMATIC DIVISION OF STUDIES
S.No. Theme Abstracts in Total
Sociology Abstracts
1.00 Education as a Social System
1.1 Socio-economic, cultural
variables, cognitive
psychological variables 2 18
1.2 Socio-economic, cultural vari-
ables, social factors and
variables 2 12
1.3 Social background and similar
variables 3 7
1.4 Attitudes, values, personality
and other psychological and
social variables 1 20
2.00 School as a Social System
2.1 Teachers, their role perception
, role-conflict and
job-satisfaction 1 9
2.2 School as a system; intra-
school relationships 1 3
3.00 Education and Society
3.1 Socialization 1 3
3.2 Social stratification, equality,
social and occupational
mobility 2 5
3.3 Social change and
development 2 7
3.4 Modernization 5 6
3.5 Education as a change agent 1 6
3.6 Innovation and change 3
4.00 Education and Politics
4.1 Political Socialization and
leadership 1 12
4.2 Student activism and
movements 0 5
4.3 Student unrest and
indiscipline 2 5
5.00 Dysfunctions
5.1 Dropouts, wastage, retention,
juvenile delinquency, children
of `criminal tribes' 2 18
6.00 Policies, Programmes and
Facilities 1 12
7.00 Miscellaneous 2 4
1.0 EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM
1.1 Socio-economic, Cultural and Psychological Variables The largest number of studies fall in this category indicating the consistent interest in this area since the sixties as is evident from Thirtha's survey. In fact, the number has increased, which also points towards the importance given to this dimension. However, it may be noted that a substantial contribution has been made by departments of psychology and education. while the contribution of departments of sociology is not significant.
Eighteen studies are included in this group. Studies by P.S. Pandey (1981), M.R. Pandey (1981), Pal (1984), Misra (1986), Kumari (1982) and Bhintade (1986) focus either on performance and academic achievement or on aspirations, intelligence and adjustment patterns or self-concept along with academic achievement. While P.S. Pandey's study is based on 250 postgraduate students of five districts in Uttar Pradesh, M. R. Pandey interviewed the same number of students in high school and intermediate and graduate colleges in a single district of the same state. M.R. Pandey found that socio-cultural backwardness adversely affected the academic achievement of tribal students. In the set-up of the school, the hostility of peers and indifference to teachers were negative factors. P.S. Pandey comes to the conclusion that urbanism, unmarried status, a unitary type of family, and service occupations of fathers were positively related to academic achievement. Misra also found a positive relationship between urbanism, socioeconomic status, intelligence and test score, on the one hand, and academic achievement, on the other. Girls performed better than boys. The sample consisted of 1000 (500 boys and 500 girls) secondary school students of Kanpur. Of these 500 students. 300 belonged to urban areas and 200 to rural areas.
Kumari Sudha's sample consists of 200 students of standard Xi in Jalandhar. The objective of the study was to find out if any relationship existed between intelligence, achievement, adjustment, and socio-economic status of different sociometric groups such as populars, neglectees, isolates and rejectees. Bhintade investigated the present academic performance of the high school children of the mill workers of Solapur, Maharashtra, and the impact of family background and other environmental variables, such as neighbourhood and schools. Socio-economic backwardness, lack of education and a neighbourhood which was indifferent to the
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 123
success of the children at school were negative factors in the performance and aspirations of children. Teachers' negative perceptions of children as well as their indifference to the success of children was noticeable.
Reddy (1983) and Puttabuddi (1983) focus on intelligence and other dimensions within socio-economic context. Reddy, for example, studies the relationship between intelligence and age, socio-economic status and birth order, while Puttabuddi compares the intelligence of students by their socio-economic level, caste and sub-culture group. Reddy's sample consisted of 660 students (330 each from rural and urban areas and 330 each of boys and girls) of class one to eleven. Puttabuddi finds a difference in the intelligence of respondents by sub-culture. caste and socio-economic status. Reddy Finds a correlation between high intelligence and higher socioeconomic status.
The next two studies are concerned with the effect of print size and colour on the reading efficiency of disadvantaged children (Lal, 1987); and spoken language ability by caste and class at the primary level (Dileep Kumar, 1983). The sample of the latter study comprised 348 Hindu and Muslim boys and girls, 9-10 years of age, studying in class five. They belonged to the rural and urban areas of Uttar Pradesh. Intelligence was the controlling variable for selection of the sample. Caste was found to be Important only at extremes, i.e. there was a difference between the Brahmin and Scheduled Caste children in terms of spoken language while among the middle castes, the picture was not clear.
Studies by Singh (1985), Kala (1986), Taori (1986), and Naqvi (1982) are concerned with different aspects of personality development. Chauhan (1977) concentrates on the life-tendencies, meaning of success and self-concept among Harijan and non-Harijan students. Choudhary (1983) compares the development of conservation training and logical thinking among children from Kondh tribals and semi-urban cast Hindu society. Again, Kala and Taori study different psychological and non-psychological dimensions in the personality development of working and non-working mothers.
The last two studies in this sub-group are by Kalpanarao (1984), on educational pursuit, caste and psychological characteristics. of students and by Gangopadhyaya (1984), on the adjustment problems of migratory rural students and their socio-psychological determinants. In the latter study, the sample comprised 900 male high school students who had migrated to Calcutta and those who lived in the rural areas. The study found that there was difference in the family back. ground of migrant students and those who belonged to urban areas. It also found that the two differed in their adjustment, alienation, stress and social values.
1.2 Social Factor Variables Twelve studies are included in this sub-category. The size of the sample varied from 100 children studying in pre-basic schools to 1115 rural women. The sample included students in pre-basic schools, grade VII students, undergraduates, postgraduates, teachers, industrial workers, rural women and educated Nagas.
Studies by Shukla (1984), Kothari (1984), Soni (1984), Sharma (1984), Jain (1986), Ramachandran (1981), and Chandrasekharan (1982) may be mentioned. Shukla's study was designed to determine the effect of the structural composition of the family, the school environment, socioeconomic status, etc. on the social competence of children between the ages of Five and six years studying in pre-basic schools in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. Shukla found that family structure and size, sex, ordinal position in the family, and the presence of grandparents did not influence social competence, while rewards and punishment, age and school environment affected social competence. Two studies are concerned with the attitudes of parents (Suwimon, 1985) and educational and occupational aspirations of parents (Paneerselvam, 1984). The first study is located in Thailand and the second in Tamil Nadu.
Kothari compares the development of moral concepts among first and second generation learners while Soni compares moral adjustment among school-going rural children by caste and sex. Kothari's sample consisted of seventh grade students the found a significant relationship between parents' educational level, better interpersonal relationship with parents, teachers and peers, on the one hand, and development of moral concepts, on the other. Soni's sample also consisted of seventh grade students. He concludes that students from high castes and girls did better than `low caste' students and boys.
Sharma and Jain are concerned with family planning and population and sex education respectively. While Sharma looks at the values of educated young men and women regarding their marital role and family planning, Jain analyses the attitudes of university youth towards not only population and sex education but also to issues such as marriage, family formation and other dimensions of population problem. Sex constitutes a dimension for comparison in both the studies. Jain's
124 KARUNA CHANANA
study compares the responses of students in Punjab and Himachal universities. He interviewed students, teachers and parents in the sample.
Jha (1986) compares 200 Santhal tribal undergraduates with 200 non-tribal undergraduates in Bihar and concludes that tribal students were more conservative than non-tribal students and girls were more conservative than boys.
Ramachandran (1981) interviewed 180 boys and girls, each in the age group of 7-8 years and found that the employment of mothers had neither positive nor negative effect on the socio-emotional and educational development of the children. Moreover, socioeconomic class was more important than the employment of mothers in terms of its impact on the subject's maturity, self-concept, manifest anxiety, achievement in language and arithmetic.
Kumar (1980) studies the effect of socio-economic factors, including sex, on the demand for higher education, the choice of the subjects and the intended occupation. The study by Bhattacharjee (1983) on the socioeconomic strategies of education in Nagaland used historical sources as well as the data collected through interviews of 750 educated Nagas belonging to a few tribes of Nagaland. It underscores the negative contribution of parent illiteracy during 1930-50 and the positive contribution of parental occupational and economic status and socio-cultural environment.
1.3 Social Background In this set seven studies are included. Apart from Majumdar and Chaudhuri (1978) and Jain (1984) mention may be made of Parekh (1982) who studies the social background of adolescents; Sharma (1983) on the leisure-time activities of college students; and Shaikh (1983) on the life-style of slumdwellers and its relationship with education.
Dhanda (1985) tries to ascertain the attitude of college teachers towards the education of Scheduled Caste postgraduate and undergraduate students. The teachers who had an unfavourable attitude were quite substantial in number and their proportion was somewhat higher among women than among men teachers. The survey of living and working conditions of undergraduate students in Calcutta by Chattopadhyay and others (1959) was one of the first to have been undertaken at that time. It was an indication of interest in students and their problems. The fact that the studies undertaken in the eighties are still asking the same questions and researching the same problems is symptomatic of the stagnation in the sociology of education. Perhaps, the only difference is the use of the sophisticated statistical techniques, a point we shall discuss later.
1.4 Attitudes, Values, Personality and other Psycho-social
Variables Six studies concentrate on the value system, value-orientations, social values and aspirations, while one focuses on needs, interests and aspirations of adult. The size of the sample varies from 113 student teachers to 1100 students of the tenth class.
While Patel (1981) and Goswami (1983) were interested in constructing an inventory of values and standardizing a value test respectively, Goswami's (1983) objective was to study educational, moral, social, religious, cultural, aesthetic and economic values. The major finding was that the post-basic schools provided a better atmosphere for inculcating moral, social and religious values and Gandhian attitudes of self-reliance than the ordinary schools. Paul (1986) found that urban adolescents (boys as well as girls) were more highly oriented to competence, maturity, goal accomplishment than the rural adolescents. There was a difference in the values of students by sex and level of education.
Of the remaining studies in this group, six deal with religious identity and prejudice (Singh, 1978; Kumar, 1986); religious beliefs (Krishnan, 1981); religious education (Rizvi, 1986); communal attitudes (Jayakumari, 1981); and caste prejudices among teachers (Saxena, 1975). Some of the other studies are on premarital sexual attitudes and behaviour (Rakesh, 1980); attitudes to planned parenthood (Ananthasayanam, 1982); values, problems and level of frustration of Harijan boys (Singh, 1986); value orientations, cultural determinism and frustration as correlates of components of creativity (Chauhan, 1984). The sampies consisted of 300 girl students of Delhi University 822 of school youth; 1200 adolescent girls: and 1200 students from Jammu University.
Singh (1978) and Kumar (1986) deal with the same problem in different settings. Singh's sample consisted of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh students while Kumar's consisted of Christian students. Both found age to be very crucial in the formation of religious prejudice. Ethno-centrism was less widespread in younger groups but it was formed by the age of 6-7 years or a year later among the children of all the religious communities. Sex was not an important variable.
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 125
2.0 SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM
2.1 Teachers as Components of the System This category is divided into two sub-groups. In the first are included nine studies on teachers, their role perception, conflict and job satisfaction. Two of these are on the teachers in Thailand. The studies to be mentioned are: Patel (1984) on the role perception of primary school teachers; and Bhamwari (1986) on the role perspective of women teachers. Both try to relate role perceptions to socio- psychological variables. The others are by George (1982) on role expectations, role performance, and training needs of teachers of English; on role conflict by Mehta (1985); and three studies on job satisfaction by Dixit (1986), Shah (1982) and Nayak (1982).
Mehta's respondents are 393 teachers of high schools and intermediate colleges in a district of Uttar Pradesh. Mehta concludes that age, teaching experience, number of dependents, sources of additional income, location of schools and linkage with professional assistance did not have a significant relationship with the degree of role conflict. Another noteworthy finding was that a high level of role conflict was related to low job satisfaction. Dixit compares job satisfaction among 300 primary and 300 secondary school teachers and comes to the conclusion that there was variation in job satisfaction according to whether one was teaching in a Hindi-medium or English- medium school or whether it was a primary or a secondary school. For instance, secondary school teachers in English-medium schools and primary school teachers in Hindi-medium schools were more satisfied than their counterparts in the Hindi and English-medium schools respectively. Again, women teachers were more satisfied than male teachers at both levels.
Shah relates the social background of 475 primary school teachers of Varanasi to their job satisfaction. While the high castes (Brahmin and Kayastha) were well represented, a majority of teachers belonged to the lower middle class or lower class. It seems that the sample consisted of women alone. Most of the women teachers were satisfied (8 8.2 per cent) with their job although they were not satisfied with their salaries. Yet they would not like to change their occupation because of the high esteem associated with teaching. Nayak makes a study of adjustment as well as job satisfaction. It is a comparative study insofar as it compares married and unmarried teachers. The total sample consisted of 785 teachers spread across rural (410) and urban (375) areas. The most important finding was that there was no difference in the job satisfaction and teaching attitude of married and unmarried female teachers in the rural and urban while differences were found in the adjustment of teachers according to whether they were lecturers or upper or lower-division teachers.
Wera's (1982) objective was to prepare a tool to measure role commitment and conflict and to prepare an attitude scale for each; Saita's (1984) sample included 249 administrators and 645 teachers from primary and secondary schools and colleges. Professional role conflict was experienced more by women college teachers than school teachers. Similarly, administrators at the primary level felt the highest level of professional role conflict. Wera administered the scale to 400 male and 400 female teachers from 40 schools selected at random. Women teachers, married teachers and teachers in urban areas had more favourable attitudes towards the teaching profession. Thus, sex, marriage and urban residence were favourable to professionalism.
2.2 Intra-School Relationships Bisht's (1986) study was designed to determine the interpersonal trust among 720 undergraduates and their teachers (120) in Himachal Pradesh. The study found that interpersonal trust is lower among `science girls' than among `science boys', while there was no difference among boys and girls in arts subjects. Dutta (1985) undertook an anthropological survey of primary education in greater Calcutta. His sample consisted of 109 schools. Data were collected through survey schedules, hostel records and allied information, plus open-ended interviews. The study provides a socio-demographic profile of the schools and their students.
Thapan's (1984) study examines the triangular relationship between ideology, school and syllabus through a case study of a school grounded in a particular ideology. Here the school is viewed as a system within the framework of interpretative methodology. `This study combines the anthropological techniques of participant observation as well. It makes a departure from the earlier studies in terms of theoretical framework and methodology by using qualitative data and providing a different approach.
3.0 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
3.1 Socialization Three studies directly focus on this dimension, namely those by Say (1986); Kapur (1986); and Vijaylakshmi
126 KARUNA CHANANA
(1985). Say studies the impact of socialization on the personality development of Munda tribal children in Bihar. Kapur analyses the effect of socialization of primary school children of a Delhi village on their moral education. The techniques used are participant obser- vation and Piagetian interviews, formal curriculum as well as other available records and data. The theoretical framework used was symbolic interactionism. This study is also a refreshing departure from the other studies insofar as it is qualitative and analytical. It concludes that adult control over children was an integral part of social interaction within the school and this norm was overtly stated through the teaching aids. Interaction between the sexes was excluded in secondary socialization while the science curriculum reasserted the sexual division of labour. The two processes of primary and secondary socialization corresponding to home and school were quite distinct. Professional courses, residence in hostels, educational level of the family, employment of mother, economic status of the family, residence in metropolitan cities-all these variables were positively related to liberal perception of sex roles.
3.2 Equality, Social Mobility, Occupational Mobility and Social Stratification
There are five studies, by Attar (1983); Sabnis (1985); Waghmare (1985); Nambissan (1983); and Bhattacharya (1984) in this sub-group. Nambissan's objectives were to compare the magnitude of inequality of educational opportunity between the Bhil tribal and non-tribal (Brahmin) communities in Rajasthan. The data were collected from households in three villages apart from interviewing 57 Bhil youths. The main objective was to study the nature and magnitude of occu- pational mobility and inter-generational occupational mobility among Bhil youth. Survey as well as intensive field work were used to collect data. Qualitative and quantitative data were combined. Some of the findings were as follows: Access to service occupations was positively related to chances of educational access and length of stay for tribal children. The spread of occupational opportunities among the tribal households was narrow and a process of status inheritance was visible in households which had access to new occupational op- portunities. Apart from limited inter-generational occupational mobility, a large number of educated tribals were going in for wage labour.
Bhattacharya examines the nature and degree of mobility promoted by education over three generations in West Bengal. The sample consisted of 225 families, 21 educational institutions and 51 work organizations of four regions. The significant finding was that education did not promote social mobility among the lower social strata and was somewhat evident in middle classes. The system of education was stratified and it reinforced the prevailing social stratification.
3.3 Social Change and Development There are seven studies on social change and development. The studies on social change are by Choudhury (1985); Desai (1984); Varshney (1984); Hulna (1986); Ray (1986); Saikia (1981) and Samar (1985). Choudhury wanted to ascertain the spread of education among the Scheduled Tribes working in the tea estates of North Bengal. The sample consisted of all the households in a tea estate and in a village. Case-study material was also collected along with using a structured schedule and questionnaire. Choudhury found a difference in the responses of migrant tribals working in the tea estates and the village settlers in the field of literacy and gainful occupation. The studies by Hluna and Ray are historical. Ray traces the role of missionaries in the educational development of Nadia district in West Bengal the outlines the role of the Christian missionaries as pioneers of education but he also underscores that the ultimate aim was evangelization. Saikia's study depends on historical and contemporary records as well as survey of nine primary schools in Shillong. He highlights various dimensions and finds that the enrolment of boys was higher than that of girls in primary and junior basic schools among the Scheduled Tribes. The dropout rate was 60.3 per cent. Samar outlines the contribution of Urdu novels to the development of modem education of Muslim women the follows a historical approach. It is interesting to note that in the absence of a formal educational system for Muslim women, Urdu novels became instruments of education.
3.4 Modernization Of the six studies on modernization, three are located in India, one in India and Nigeria, and one each in Thailand and Bangladesh. The three Indian studies are by Jayaswal (1980), Verghese (1977), and Ramana (1985), One of the purposes of Jayaswal's study was to assess the magnitude of their proneness to respond to the call of modernity. He
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 127
interviewed 300 educated youth in Uttar Pradesh. Verghese set out to locate the linkage, if any, between modernization and alienation, as well as to measure the level of modernization among 800 students in Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. He found a significant relationship between modernization and education. However, education did not neutralize the negative impact of structural and personality factors to increase modernity level and reduce alienation levels. Ramana's finding was that modernity among lady teachers was related to socio- economic factors.
Ugai (1983) undertook a comparison of Indian and Nigerian students and found that Nigerians scored higher on the modernity scale. Srisucondharatana (1985) interviewed college teachers in Thailand to study their traits vis-a-vis various dimensions of modernization. The sample consisted of 252 teachers. Khatun (1996) selected two villages in Bangladesh. The sample consisted of 427 household heads as well as 150 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 1 8 years. She found a difference in the attitudes and beliefs of educated and uneducated people.
3.5 Education as Change Agent Six studies are grouped here. These are Gogate (1985), Emmanuel (1986), Rao (1984), Moonis Raza et al. (1986), Diwedi (1983) and Sinha (1982). The first three were designed to create awareness among students or to change their attitudes. Gogate's main objective was to initiate an action project to create social awareness while Emmanuel wanted to develop a programme for helping the backward classes of Orissa to become aware of their social reality. Gogate found that it was necessary to organize the socially aware teachers, howsoever small their number, as instruments for creating awareness among students, Emmanuel concludes on an optimistic note about the effectiveness of the intervention programme. Rao introduces three kinds of interven- tions, verbal, visual and dramatized, in changing the attitudes of urban students of Class IX in Orissa.
3.6 Innovations and Change Sociometric innovations, apart from the intervention programmes mentioned above, are also important. Diffusion of innovations, their impact on teacher-student interaction and to identify different types of students to help the teachers in the classroom situation are some of the problems studied herein. There are three studies (D'Souza, 1984; Dhondiyal, 1984 and Pandey, 1985). D'Souza's study was designed to help familiarize the teacher with sociometry and its uses in studying interaction patterns between different types of students. Dhondiyal, on the other hand, studied the impact of experimentally induced positive and negative expectations of teachers on the sociometric status of students as well as on the teachers' ratings of populars and neglectees. Pandey studied the social-psychological characteristics of sociometric stars and isolates. He found that there was a positive relationship between social acceptability and academic achievement.
The study by Moonis Raza et al. (1986) is a macro-study based on data collected from 30,000 rural households in 245 villages of Karnataka. It was designed to investigate the impact of educational level on the adoption of new technologies and diversification of economic activities. The next two studies are concerned with changing attitudes and values, e.g. Diwedi (1983) compares the values of postgraduate students with the older generation while Santha (1986) interviews men and women to assess their opinions about the changing role of women. Diwedi found age and sex to be important variables in determining social values.
4.0 EDUCATION AND POLITICS
4.1 Political Socialization and Leadership Of the 12 studies on political socialization and leadership, two are directly concerned with the role of education in political socialization of students (Dixit, 1983; Chopra, 1984), three look at the political attitudes of college students (Singh, 1987; Mathur 1985; Singh, 1980) while one (Sharique, 1984) relates to teachers' values, preferences, etc. in relation to political ideologies. Dixit (1983) found the effect of education on political attitude significant though it decreased from high school to postgraduate level. However, Chopra (1984) found that students from educationally and economically backward strata were less aware politically. A few studies deal with leadership-orientation (Pandey, 1983), personality correlates of leadership (Kumar, 1964), leadership behaviour of students (Mulla, 1986), impact of leadership patterns-of principals on teachers (Phongchum, 1985), patterns of student leadership (Solanki, 1984), and political application and personality correlates (Tripathi, 1982).
128 KARUNA CHANANA
While Pandey found that age had no impact on leadership-orientation at the college stage, Kumar concludes that age, caste, and length of stay in the university were significantly related to student leadership. Kumar interviewed 50 student leaders and 50 non-leaders. Most of these studies come up with known findings, such as the difference between arts and science students and the preference of girls for certain personality correlates and of boys for certain others.
4.2 Student Activism and Movement In the next sub-group are five studies on student activism (Kalia, 1986; Rama, 1978; Ara, 1983) and their participation in the student movement (Bora, 1985) and in the Telengana movement of Andhra Pradesh (Reddy, 1978). The analysis of the personality make-up of activists and non-activists was the aim of Kalia's study. Again, one comes across known conclusions, namely, the activists were found to be more outgoing, participating cheerfully, etc., and were also high on alienation, Rama included students, student leaders and lecturers in his sample to analyse the reasons for student activism and found that all the groups agreed that it was directed against the authorities and teachers. Similarly, when Reddy concludes that level of participation among boys is higher than among girls, no new insight is gained. Bora's study combines the historical approach with interviews of important persons and student leaders of Assam to analyse the role and contribution of students to the freedom movement since 1916. He concludes that their contribution was significant.
4.3 Student Unrest and Indiscipline The last five studies focus on student indiscipline in higher education institutions of Tamil Nadu (Malika, 1981), student unrest in Bihar (Gour, 1978) and the factors underlying it (Singh, 1986; Bandopadhyay, 1984), and lastly, the impact of teacher-student relationship on student unrest (Ghose, 1985). The distinction between activism and unrest is not very clear. It seems that activism has been used as a synonym for unrest. All the studies, except the one on Bihar, use survey techniques to generate data. Lack of facilities has been identified as an important factor which causes student unrest. Ghose mentions that the perfunctory attitudes of teachers, among other things, was another factor causing indiscipline.
5.0 DYSFUNCTIONS / PROBLEMS Eighteen studies have been grouped in this category although the problems studied range through dropouts and wastage, alienation, breakdown of social adaptability, conformity and deviance, deprivation, juvenile delinquency among the children of the `criminal tribes', orphans, inmates of children's correctional institutes, and cultural-familial mental retardation.
Mathur et al. (1982) and Gangopadhyay (1985) focus on dropouts. Mathur's study views the problem in the context of the social background of dropouts and identifies the factors responsible for their withdrawal from school. Inconvenient time-tables and the need for help in the family occupation were important factors. This study was under-taken in four states and the sample consisted of 1900 respondents from each state. Gangopadhyay determines the extent of wastage and stagnation at the secondary school level among boys and girls in Udaipur, Rajasthan, and in Liberia. The main causes for wastage and stagnation were apathy to English and a dislike for mathematics, lack of educational guidance, and poor study habits. Dutt and others (1982) undertook a study of dropouts in Haryana. The main causes for girls dropping out were: teachers' behaviour, caste discrimination, poverty, need to help parents in their work or to look after siblings, apathy of parents' towards girls' education, early marriage, inadequate facilities, irrelevant syllabus, ill-health, illiteracy of parents and non-existence of separate high schools for girls in many villages.
Of the four studies on alienation, one is concerned with the employees of Kumaon University (Joshi, 1985) while the remaining three interview students. Pattnaik (1983) draws a psycho-social profile of alienated students. Studies by Kathuria (1982), Nagar (1985), and Varma (1986) have studied the dimension of deprivation and its impact on academic achievement, or on personality patterns or on intelligence. Kathuria concludes that there is a negative and non- significant relationship between scholastic achievement and global prolonged deprivation. Similarly, Varma found that social deprivation was negatively related to problem solving.
6.0 POLICIES, PROGRAMMES, FACILITIES We have classified 12 studies in this category, three of which are concerned with the problems and socio-
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 129
cultural conditions of tribal students and assessment of the extent of change due to the impact of the school system on the local community (Gupta, 1965; Joshi, 1985; Yathirajkumar, 1981). One study surveys the facilities available to backward class students in Poona. `A Study of the Women's Affairs Training Programme' was conducted in Nepal by Pradhan (1986). Pant's study (1984) on `People's Participation in Education' is also located in Nepal. Gupta (1986) compares student welfare programmes in the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Methodology In terms of thematic coverage, a large majority of studies have shifted their focus from the earlier pattern of broad general surveys of the social background of students, their attitudes and values, to the study of factors in the social background that influence students' aspirations, attitudes and behaviour. The tendency to use indices and scales to measure several variables, which began in the seventies, has crystallized. The use of sophisticated statistical techniques has enabled scholars to identify causes and correlations, thereby replacing the earlier sociographic descriptions. This shift is re- flected in the sub-divisions of themes as well as in the titles of theses. Thus, the list of independent variables as well as the dependent variables has expanded substantially.
These developments indicate a growing maturity among researchers leading them to identify proper tools and statistical devices for testing hypotheses. Thus research in the sociology of education shows a discernible maturity.
It would be a useful exercise to look at the status of research in the sociology of education with respect to sampling procedure, data collection and data analysis. As far as the sampling procedure is concerned, the most commonly used methods are random and stratified sampling. Some researchers have paid careful attention to the selection of the sample. The same cannot be said about the majority of them. There is a need for researchers to systematize their methods of selection of samples to suit the nature of the problem and hypothe- ses being examined.
There is some advance as far as methods of data collection are concerned. Shah (1986) in the Third Survey of Research in Education remarked that the questionnaire formed the most popular data-gathering device, followed by interview. A close scrutiny of 155 new studies indicates that there is slow but gradual shift from non-standardized questionnaire to standardized instruments for collecting data. Some of the instruments used for this purpose are the Social Behaviour Check List, Mental Ability Test, Merital Role Preference Scale, Value Systems Scale, Language Achievement Test and several other tests scales and inventories. In addition to using the available standardized instruments and scales, a few researchers have undertaken studies to design new instruments and validate them. This is a welcome trend.
The techniques of data analysis adopted vary from use of simple percentage and frequency to multiple regression analysis and factor analysis. The testing of hypotheses has been done by sophisticated tests, both parameteric and non-parameteric. There is, however, a lurking suspicion that some of the researchers used statistical tools more as an end rather than a means. There is need to guard against this tendency.
Chitnis mentions in the first ICSSR survey that the emphasis on the survey method may have necessitated by the need for basic data (1974) in the 1960s, when the sociology of education was making a beginning. She also mentions that over-dependence on the survey method may have been due to the `dearth of tools in the form of indices, concepts and models of research' and these lacunae may have `inhibited the growth of more sophisticated research'. These studies indicate that we now have more sophisticated research, especially in psychology and education, yet, if one had hoped that this development would take us in the direction of `explanation' from mere `description', it has not done so. What we have are statistical analyses and explanations. The use of sophisticated tools has not brought about a major, qualitative change in research in the sociology of education. The question arises: Has it advanced our understanding of the social reality? Unfortunately, the application of sophisticated tools leading to statistically quantifiable results has given rise to complacency among scholars. No effort is made, in most cases, to present the findings and analysis so that they could be understood without the statistical results. In-depth analysis is not undertaken, nor are the implications of statistical findings explored in order to understand the social reality. While quite a few mention the use of observation in addition to survey, the conclusions do not reflect any additional insights that may have been
130 KARUNA CHANANA
gained through observation. A few studies have used the historical approach and the case-study approach successfully and this has been indicated in this trend report. Only one relates to the concept of education. Otherwise, none explain concepts nor the nature of sociological enquiry into education or develop new theoretical or conceptual models.
Major Shortcomings There is no appreciable shift in theoretical perspective or questioning of the earlier perspectives. Most of the studies have undertaken the earlier perspectives. As far as theme is concerned, one does not see a radical departure from earlier studies. Researchers in the sociology of education appear to be problem-blind. The onslaught of techonology has resulted in a major sociological upheaval that throws up large numbers of prob- lems needing urgent research.
From the simple procedure of calculating the percentages, researchers have started using meaningful statistical procedures which definitely improve the validity of their findings. However, the merit of qualitative analysis should not be lost sight of. The need is to use the statistical data analysis in a judicious way.
Quite a few studies lack in depth analysis and interpretation of the data. The result is `description rather than explanation of the sociological phenomenon', which is not enough to merit the title of research.
Gaps in the Existing Research and Suggestions for Further Research
We have mentioned above that there is an absence of studies on concepts, conceptual and theoretical perspectives and models.
Another noteworthy failing is that education continues to be defined narrowly, i.e. it is equated to formal education. Thus, non- formal education and socialization have either been completely neglected or paid very little attention.
While the nexus between education and politics is becoming closer through interlinkages between the politicians, on the one hand, and students and teachers on the other, it is surprising that this dimension is not receiving enough attention. Similarly, the role of political socialization, the role of leadership and the impact of politics on teachers, etc. are significant areas demanding attention.
Various aspects of the internal organization and structure of the school system and the classroom also deserve attention. The breakdown of moral values and the role of education in a culturally heterogeneous society is another dimension that needs to be better understood.
The problem of dropouts should receive more attention. Granting that it takes long to contact them, yet it is a worthwhile endeavour, especially with reference to the weaker sections, the girls and the rural and backward regions of our country. Adult learners, with the dropouts, may throw light on some of the impediments to the universalization of elementary education.
There are a few fundamental studies which should be taken up at the national level by national organisations. There is need to look at the multilateral splitting of the educational system into elitistic versus mass, public versus private, religious versus secular, and its implications for the universalization of primary education and for democratization of higher education. Another important area is curriculum. The questions before the researchers are: How do children learn and respond to different curricula and learning environments? What is the role of the mother-tongue, especially at the primary level? What is `hidden curriculum' and its impact on the deprived and the disadvantaged? Such studies will help us to focus on the interaction between the home, the primary learning environment of the child, and the school. There is need to document this interaction, particularly in the context of the expectations from the core curriculum.
Further there is a question of interaction between the twin processes of socialization and education or formal schooling. Since a large majority of our children are first-generation learners coming from deprived homes and varied backgrounds, it is imperative that the process of socialisation in the home be studied along with its impact on the socialization and the learning process within the school.
Finally, we would like to mention that researches in the sociology of education by psychologist/ educationists and those by sociologists differ considerably in approach, execution and interpretation. To bring harmony between social scientists studying the same social issues, it is necessay to have major sociological themes studied by multidisciplinary teams of psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists and educationists. This would bring more coherence to studies of multidisciplinary nature.
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 131
ABSTRACTS: 82-226 82. AGARWAL, M., A Study of the Difference of Self-Esteem between Authoritarian and Democratic Adolescents and its Relation to their Attitude towards Parental Control and Discipline, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1981
The hypotheses of the study were: (1) The authoritarian and democratic personality do not differ from each other significantly in their self- esteem. (2) Authoritarian and democratic groups do not differ in their attitudes towards parental control. (3) There is no relationship between the attitudes towards parental control and self-esteem of au- thoritarian groups. (4) There is no relationship between the attitudes towards parental control and self-esteem of democratic groups. (5) The authoritarian adolescents resent the parental control. (6) The democratic adolescents are in favour of parental control.
The sample comprised 500 adolescents belonging to different educational institutions of Agra, 350 adolescents were authoritarian and 150 were democratic. The scale of attitudes towards parental control was designed to measure permissive/non-permissive attitudes towards control of children's activities. The split-half reliability coefficient was 0.86. The Q-Sort technique was used to measure self- esteem. The test-retest and split-half reliability coefficients were 0.72 and 0.62 respectively. For measuring authoritarianism, a scale was developed. The split-half reliability coefficient was 0.74. Data were analysed using t-test. and correlation techniques.
The findings were: 1. The authoritarian and democratic personality did not differ from each other in their self-esteem. 2. Authoritarian and democratic groups did not differ in their attitudes towards parental control. Generally people were inclined towards authoritarianism instead of democratism. 3. There was a significant relationship between the attitudes towards parental control and self- esteem of authoritarian groups. 4. There was a significant and positive relationship between self-esteem and parental control of democratic groups. 5. Authoritarian adolescents resented, and democratic adolescents favoured, parental control.
83. AGARWAL, M., A Factorial Study of Attitude of Students towards some Social Problems, Ph.D. Edu., Jammu U., 1984
The alms of the study were (i) to study the distribution of attitude scores of college and university students in the five social areas of study viz. alcoholism, communalism, corruption, dowry, and poverty, (ii) to make a comparative study of the attitude of students (boys and girls) towards five social problems at college and university levels, (iii) to study the effect of sex, educational level and socio-economic status on the attitude of students, and (iv) to study the dominant factors of attitudes of boys and girls towards five social problems.
The random sampling method was followed and 1 200 students in all-600 from various departments of the university and 600 from colleges of Jammu, were randomly picked. Five social problems were selected on the basis of the opinions of experts. The Likert method was used for attitude measurement. Twenty items of equal number of positive and negative directions were put in each of the social areas after item analysis. The split-half method was used to estimate the reliability coefficients of each scale. Finally the composite reliability was calculated using Mosier Formula and was found to be 0.89. A Socio-economic Status Questionnaire was also prepared.
The major findings were: 1. The distribution of scores for all the groups of students showed lack of symmetry and deviation from normality. 2. The distributions of scores of college boys and girls for alcoholism and communalism were leptokurtic. however, the distributions for university boys and girls were platykurtic. In the areas of corruption, the distributions of scores for college boys and university boys were leptokurtic. For university and college girls, they were platykurtic. In the case of dowry and poverty the attitude scores of all the groups were platykurtic. 3. Girls were more concerned and conscious about these five social problems than boys at both college and university levels. 4. Sex and educational level affected the attitude scores of students towards alcoholism and there was no significant interactional effect between the three variables. 5. The educational level affected the attitude of students towards communalism. Sex and educational level when taken together also affected the attitude of students. 6. Sex and educational level in- dependently affected the attitude of students towards corruption but there was no joint influence of the three independent variables either when taken in pairs or when taken all together. 7. Sex and socio- economic status were two prominent factors which influenced the at- titude towards dowry. The triple Interactions were found to influence the dependent variable significantly. 8. Sex influenced the attitude scores in the case of poverty but there was no joint influence of the three independent variables, either in pairs or col-
132 RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS
lectively. 9. The problems of dowry, poverty and alcoholism were three social problems to which both boys and girls attached significant importance. 10. Two prominent and dominant factors in case of boys were factors of economic deprivation and alcoholism based on communalism or communalism based on alcoholism. In case of girls the two factors were economic deprivation and corruption based on alcoholism or alcoholism based on corruption.
84. AHMED, M.A., Placement of Education of Minorities in Secular India and its Role in National Integration with Special Reference to the Muslims in India, Ph.D. Edu., Osm. U., 1985
The objectives of the study were (i) to examine whether or not the minorities felt that preferential rights given to them in the Constitution had adequately helped them to conserve their religious culture, language, etc., (ii) to find out whether the Muslim minority based on faith irrespective of geographical boundaries was ready to accept nationhood, (iii) to study the views of a crosssection of the Muslim minority about secular democracy and national integration, and (iv) to compare and contrast the religious education of Muslims with attainment of national integration.
The study was an explanatory one following the theoretical method. It was based on library information concerning various records like Census data, voting patterns, voting behaviour records, etc. To support this, information was also gathered through observation and unscheduled interviews of 500 subjects from different walks of life but connected with education of the minorities. There were ten types of people who were interviewed on the topic of minorities role in national integration: (i) members of Muslim minority institutions following their own syllabi, (ii) members of Muslim minority institutions following government syllabi, (iii) Muslim minority members getting government aid for their institution, (iv) members of institutions following state syllabi, (v) members of Madrassas imparting religious education, (vi) members of medical and engineering colleges, (vii) non-resident Indian trustees of minority institutions, (viii) members of linguistic minorites other than the Muslim community, (ix) dignitaries from the Muslim community, and (x) ladies of the Muslim community serving in colleges or universities.
The findings of the study were: 1. Muslims accounted for 11.21 per cent of population of the country and came next to the Hindus. 2. The assumption that more facilities for minority education would provide better education was not supported. 3. The rights to culture and educational self-determination created hurdles in the making of a strong nation. 4. A national education programme was not possible without the assimilation of minorities in the national mainstream. 5. Any uniform All India Education Policy was bound to prove disastrous for the rich diversified cultural heritage. 6. Muslims had shown a stronger affinity for religion than for anything else. 7. Secularism and national integration were correlated in the pluralistic society of India. 8. Education was considered the only potent tool to achieve national integration as unity in diversity. 9. National integration was possible through peaceful coexistence and mutual trust between the majority and minority communities.
85. ANANTHASAYANAM, R., Socio-Psychological Study of Planned Parenthood with reference to Ideals, Perceptions and Attitudes of Mate Out-of-School Youth in Rural Areas of Chingleput District in Tamil Nadu (India), Ph.D. Edu., Madras U., 1982
The main objectives of the study were (i) to find out the interrelationships between planned parenthood ideals, perceptions and attitudes held by rural out-of-school youth, (ii) to find out the relationship between planned parenthood ideals, attitudes and perceptions and some selected socio-psychological variables of rural out-of-school youth, (iii) to identify the dimensions of planned parenthood ideals, attitudes and perceptions, and (iv) to evolve a descriptive typology of male out-of-school youth based on planned parenthood ideals, perceptions, attitudes and socio-psychological variables.
Seventy-two variables were identified relating to socio- psychological factors, and 32 relating to planned parenthood ideals, attitudes and perceptions. A structured interview schedule was prepared and pretested to measure these variables. The sample consisted of 200 male out-of-school youth (MOSY) at the district level and 622 MOSY at the village level representing eighteen sampled villages. Multi-stage proportionate simple random sampling technique *as adopted for sample selection. Apart from the conventional measures of central tendency and variability, factor analysis and cluster analysis were done.
The main findings were: 1. Significant relationship was observed between planned parenthood perceptions
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 133
and ideals, perceptions and attitudes, and ideals and attitudes. 2. The 32 variables relating to planned parenthood ideals, perceptions and attitudes structured themselves into nine factors, three positive and six negative. 3. From the 72 socio-psychological variables, 23 factors were extracted, 18 major and five minor. Of the major factors, attitude towards planned parenthood, socio-psychological dimension, religiosity, perception of planned methods, socioeconomic status, learning, awareness and societal attitude towards family plan- ning were positive dimensions; and ideal age for marriage, ideal family size, ideal spacing of children, attitude towards women's equality, exposure to mass media, perceptions of and attitudes towards birth control and fear of child mortality, male dominance, awareness and fear of child mortality, aspirations for children's future, nature of family, and attitudes to and perceptions of spacing of childbirth were negative dimensions.
The implications of the study are: (1) As the population subjected to the study possesses homogeneous characteristics regarding planned parenthood ideals, perceptions and attitudes, programmes related to planned parenthood do not call for complexity but may be simple and straightforward. (2) The population possesses a well- defined perception and attitude towards planned parenthood. This provides an ideal condition for effective implementation of population education programmes. (3) The contents of the population education programme should show greater care and attention positively enabling rural youth to be weaned away from the deep-rooted traditional inhibitions in the decision-making process regarding issues relating to planned parenthood.
*86. ARYA, S., Cultural Stratum, Age, Economic Status and Parenting (Fathering) as Correlates of Deviance of Higher Secondary School-going Boys, Ph. D. Psy., Mee. U., 1986
The important objectives of the investigation were (i) to study the nature of deviance of higher secondary school-going boys as related to different levels of cultural stratum, age, economic status and fathering, (ii) to study deviance in a multivariate setting to seek unique interpretations operating in present context, (iii) to evolve an operational structure for deviance, and (iv) to explore new vistas with additional insights into the important field of deviance through multivariate programmes.
A sample of 960 higher secondary school-going boys ranging from 12 years to 16 years and having different economic status and fathering was selected from the urban and rural population of Mathura district, using the stratified random sampling technique. The final sample consisting of 480 students from both types of fathering was selected administering the Socio-Economic Status Scale (Chauhan et al.) and the Scale for Multidimensional Personality (Chauhan). The other instrument used was the Behaviour Deviance Scale (Chauhan). The data were analysed using ANOVA.
The findings of the study were: 1. Cultural stratum and age as a whole were significant factors for deviance, but economic status and fathering were not significant ones. These seemed to be effective and operative only when they interacted with other factors. 2. Deviance had been found to be an urban feature. 3. The incidence of deviance was most prominent at the age of 14 years and declined afterwards. 4. Economic status and fathering remained ineffective at the juncture of adolescence. 5. Age proved to be an important variable with respect to the social and psychological environment responsible for the deviance.
87. ATTAR, U.A., Teachers: A Study in Social Mobility, Ph.D. Soc., Kar. U., 1983
The objectives of the study were to study in detail the various aspects of mobility into and out of the teaching profession, socioeconomic and demographic composition of teachers, their educational attainment, alms and aspirations.
A stratified random selection of 400 teachers of different sexes, castes and educational institutions ranging from the primary to the university level, located in urban and rural areas was made. A field- tested interview schedule was used to collect data. It consisted of questions in the following areas-particulars regarding respondents, family background, education, occupational background, socioeconomic status and family attitudes. The data collected were analysed by means of percentages and Rogoff's mobility coefficient.
The major findings were: 1. The teaching profession was found to be dominated by males. There was a preponderance of female teachers at the primary level. The representation of female teachers progressively dwindled as one ascended the educational ladder. There
134 RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS
were no female teachers in the engineering colleges, whereas 15 per cent of teachers in medical colleges were women. 2. Women teachers seemed to commence their teaching career much earlier than males. 3. Teachers belonging to the age group 30-49 were more in number. 4. About 82, 9 and 9 per cent respectively represented Hindu, Muslim and Christian teachers. About 40 per cent of Hindu teachers, 63.88 per cent of Muslim and 61.11 per cent of Christian teachers were employed in primary and secondary schools. 5. A caste-bias in the appointments of teachers in institutions managed by different castes was found. 6. In the urban area, 34 per cent of teachers were Brahmins, 42 per cent Lingayats, 21 per cent other Hindus and 3 per cent Scheduled Castes. 7. About 86 per cent of the teachers were married and 2 per cent were widowers. More women teachers were unmarried. 8. About 83 per cent of teachers lived in nuclear families. 9. About 76 per cent of families with 1 to 3 children were found among the professional college teachers. Primary school teachers were found to have the highest number of children. 10. Teachers by and large felt that they belonged to the middle class but the middle class with which they identified had a lot of variation. 11. About 35 per cent of teachers owned agricultural land and 34 per cent possessed their own house in the city. 12. When compared with the national per capita income, primary teachers were found to be on par while university teachers' income was double. 13. An overwhelming majority of the migrant teachers, constituting 70 per cent came from rural areas and 21 per cent from urban areas. In the case of postgraduate teachers, about 23 per cent were recruited from within the district, 72 per cent from within the state and 5 per cent from outside the state. The area of recruitment of teachers went on widening as one went up the educational ladder. 14. In most of the cases, teachers having come out of traditional occupations would not want their children to resume the traditional occupation (which could be teaching, agriculture. skilled or unskilled labour). 15. An upward mobility was found when the occupations of the fathers of the subjects were compared with the occupations of the subjects.
88. BANDYOPADHYAY, S. K., A Diagnostic Study of Student Unrest in West Bengal as related to certain Sociological and Institutional Factors: A Multi-Dimensional Approach, Ph. D. Anthrop., Cal. U., 1984
The objective of the study was to consider simultaneously the effect of two broad factors, viz., the institutional characteristics of the colleges and the students' socio-economic background, on college students' unrest. For this the main research questions framed were: (1) Do the structural characteristics and organization pattern of the college concerned have anything to do with students' different activities? (2) What types of behaviour? (3) What could be the feasible structures are more susceptible to students' unrestful alternatives?
A suitable number of colleges situated in Calcutta, 24-Parganas and Howrah constituted the sample. All the colleges were degree colleges, failing into four types on the basis of management, viz., government, non-government, private and missionary. Most colleges were male colleges but a few were coeducational. Two questionnaires were designed for the study. One questionnaire was distributed among the principals and a few senior professors. This was followed by informal interviews,of those (the average number of respondents per college being three) who filled in this questionnaire. The other questionnaire was distributed among the students of randomly selected colleges. The data were analysed in descriptive categories worthwhile of a qualitative study.
The major findings were: 1. Enrolment patterns varied in the four types of colleges. 2. The sample colleges had heterogeneous student populations in terms of their socio-economic characteristics and other background traits. 3. The colleges had apparently some common characteristics in terms of their different structural features; but a micro view revealed that they distinctly varied among themselves in terms of teacher-student ratio, facilities available to students, admission policy and student composition. 4. The above stated issues were relevant or potent enough to induce student activism. 5. The colleges of four categories differed distinctly from each other in terms of admission policy, students economic conditions and teacher- student ratio. 6.They did not differ among themselves in terms of number of examinations conducted per year. 7. In 45 per cent of' the colleges It was obligatory for a student to become a member of the students' union. 8. The majority of the colleges had poor infrastructural facilities which were also attributive causes of student activism.
89. BARAL, B.N., Some Factors Causing Breakdown of Social Adaptability amongst Students of Higher Secondary Grade of West Bengal, Ph.D. Psy., Cal. U., 1969
The purpose of the present study was to examine the fol-
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION- ABSTRACTS 135
lowing hypotheses: (1) New developmental and situational factors have significant differences among them selves and they should be treated separately. (2) These factors are responsible for directly causing unrest (low, moderate and high) or maladapatability among the higher secondary students of West Bengal.
Attention was concentrated around the behavioural study of two groups of students, one possessing socially acceptable modes of behaviour and the second not possessing such acceptable modes. Questionnaires were employed to discriminate the unrest cases from the normals. The sample belonged to the adolescent groups of students of class IX of eleven higher secondary schools of West Bengal. The tool was validated against five points of Likert type ratings of subjects by teachers. After validation the test was finally administered to 500 students in order to discriminate the unrest cases from the normals. The sample belonged to the adolescent groups of students of class IX of eleven higher secondary schools of West Bengal. The tool was validated against five points of Likert type ratings of subjects by teachers. After validation the test was finally administered to 500 students in order to discriminate the low, moderate and highly maladapted case from normals. Later a sample matching was done with highly maladapted and normal cases (N-30) by administering the T.A.T. presenting picture cards showing socially confliciting situations. Clinical confirmation was achieved to give the original test a sound footing.
The major findings were: 1. The study revealed the most probable effective factors for social maladaptability amongst students. 2. From the cases of high and moderate unrest in the different categories treated, the most noticeable fact was that a fraction of data had higher percentage of `Moderate' unrest in `unrest in `Leisure time activities' while the rest one had higher values of `High' unrest in `Economic Background' `Home Environment' and `Educational Facilities'. 3. Adolescents with better economic conditions were found to be better adjusted. 4. As regards `Home Environment' and `Education facilities' it was observed that better home envioronment led to better adjustment of the student and also that educational attainment of the father, or of both the parents, helped the student to understand the need for education and consequently be successful in it. 5. Students in the humanities group were more maladjusted than those in other two streams. Boys were less adjusted than girls.
*90. BASAIAWMOIT, E.R., An Attitude Study of the Matrilineal System and its Implications for Education, Ph.D. Edu., NEHU, 1987
The objectives of the study were to investigate (i) differences in attitudes towards the matrilineal system, if any, among women belonging to different professions, (ii) differences in attitudes towards the matrilineal system, if any, between women with different levels of education, (iii) differences in attitudes between women in different age categories, (iv) influences, if any, of educated/uneducated parents on the attitudes of working women, (v) influences of religion on the attitudes towards the matrilineal system, (vi) influences of family influences of family position or order of birth on the attitudes towards the matrilineal system, and (viii) a possible association between the mothers' attitude towards the matrilineal society and adjustment of their children in four areas/domains, viz. home, school, emotional and social. These eight hypotheses were examined.
A sample of 500 Khasi working women was chosen to represent approximately equal numbers in the categories I & II, III & IV and V of National Classification of Occupations. A questionnaire, an attitude scale and an adapted form of Bell's Adjustment Inventory ware used. Chi-square and t-tests were utilized to verify each hypothesis.
The major conclusions were :1. Education and professional status determined, prevalent traditional attitudes, beliefs, customs, etc. 2. Parental educational level was not associated with children's attitudes, beliefs, etc. 3. There were no influences attributable to age of respondents in determining their attitudes towards the matrilineal system. However, marital status did seem to be associated with attitudes towards the matrilineal system, as also religion. The latter association could be attributed to a greater tendency towards conservatism on the part of married women as also on part of followers of the traditional Khasi faith. Order of birth in the family did not seem to be associated with attitudes towards matrilineal system also these attitudes did not influence adjustment levels of children.
*91 BHATNAGAR, 1., A Study of Some Family Characteristics as related to Secondary School Student Activism, Values, Adjustment and School Learning, Ph.D. Edu., Mee. U., 1984
The objectives of the investigation were (i) to study the relationship between some family characteristics-such as size, socio-economic status, type of family (broken or intact), birth order- and student activism,(ii) to study the relationship between some family characteristics and student values, (iii) to study the relationship between some family characteristics and student adjust-
136 RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS
ment, and (iv) to study the relationship between some family characteristics and student's school learning.
The study was conducted in Moradabad region and was confined to eleven intermediate colleges selected using the cluster sampling method. The sample of the study included 540 students studying in class IX. A Student Activism Inventory having a test-retest reliability index of 0.76 was developed by the investigator. Other tools used were SES Scale (Kuppuswami), Test of Values (Agarwal), Hindi version of Adjustment Inventory (Asthana), students' examination records and questionnaires. The data were analysed using Kolmogorov- Smirnov, chi-square and extended median tests.
The findings of the present study were: 1. The size of the family affected student activism, adjustment and values. Students belonging to large families had more activistic tendencies and poor adjustment while students belonging to small families had less activistic ten- dencies, better adjustment, higher values (educational, personal and material) and better school learning. 2. Religious, social and humanistic values were not found to be significantly related with the size of the family. 3. Birth order was found to be related with activism, adjustment, and personal, educational, social and materi- alistic values, while religious and humanistic values were not found to be related with birth order. 4. Socioeconomic status was found to be significantly related with activism, educational and materialistic values, and school learning, whereas it was not found to be related with personal, religious and humanistic values. 5. The broken family was positively related to activism, poor adjustment, and high personal and materialistic values, while the intact family was positively related to educational and social values.
92. BHATTACHARYA, S.K., Social Stratification and the System of Education-A Study of Social Mobility in Three Generations in West Bengal, Ph.D. Soc., Cal. U., 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to examine the relationship between the availability of the differentially distributed educational opportunities for individuals and groups in the present socio-economic situation and their utilization reflected in the differential placements of individuals and groups in the socio-economic structure, (ii) to identify the way in which educational opportunities provided by the socio-economic structure of West Bengal were utilized by individuals belonging to different socio-economic strata, (iii) to examine the nature and degree of social mobility facilitated by the differential educational structure, and (iv) to examine the subsystem- level particularities of the educational structure in relation to the different social strata in West Bengal.
The sample consisted of three types-225 families, 21 educational institutes and 51 work organizations of four regions, namely New Alipore, Jadavpur, Baruipur and Mathurapur, of different social environments. Stratified random sampling followed by random sampling was used as the sampling framework. Self-made schedules and questionnaires were used as instruments. The data were analysed by statistical measures like the chi-square test and Spearman's rank correlation.
The findings were: 1. Inequality of educational opportunity has existed in West Bengal for a long time. 2. The observations on social mobility over three generations revealed that majority of people of lower social strata remained socially immobile. 3. Social mobility was somewhat evident in the middle classes but it was restricted within the overall boundaries. 4. Upper class people could not protect and maintain their status in the society but enhanced their attibutes over the years. 5. Inequality of educational opportunity emerged out of the interaction of logistic support and cultural inequalities at home with the organizational climate and effectiveness of the system of education. 6. The system of education was thoroughly stratified and educational stratification reinforced the prevailing system of social stratification. 7. The system of education stabilized the status. 8. The impact of the system of education acted as a reinforcement to social stratification and inequity.
93. BHINTADE, V.R., A Critical Study of the Educational Problems of the Textile Mill Workers' Children Studying in the Secondary Schools in Solapur City with a view to suggesting Probable Solutions, Ph.D. Edu., Poona U., 1986
The study was conducted with the following objectives (i) to investigate the academic performance of high-school-going children of mill workers in the city of Solapur, (ii) to study the pattern of participation of these children in cocurricular activities, (iii) to explore the factors within these children which affected their scholastic performance, such as their intelligence, self-concept adjustment and academic achievement in earlier standards, (iv) to study the family background and
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 137
other environmental factors such as neighbourhood, schools which are conducive, or otherwise, affecting the academic performance of these children, and (v) to study the relationship between the curricular and cocurricular performance of the children, and factors within the children and factors around the children that were present at home or in the school.
The sample of the study consisted of 300 children of textile mill workers studying in class VIII of Marathi medium schools of Solapur city, 50 parents, 50 teachers and 11 experts. The tools used for data collection were Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM), Adjustment Inventory by Palsane, Self-Concept Inventory by Jogawar, pro forma for recording achievement, questionnaires, and interview schedules. Data were collected through record surveys, administration of tests and questionnaires, and conducting interviews. The statistical techniques like percentages, chi-square, t-test and Pearson's product-moment coefficient of correlation were used for analysis of data.
The conclusions of the study were: 1. The children's performance in academic subjects was very poor. 2. Half of them willingly participated in the cocurricular activities. 3. Most of the children had no hobbies. 4. The mean IQ of the sample children was below average. 5. Children were poor with regard to their adjustment at home and in society, and also in respect of health and personal emotional aspects. 6. There was low correlation between adjustment and achievement. 7. The perceived self and ideal self of children were every poor. 8. There was low correlation between adjustment and self- concept. 9. The children had no interest in studies and had no aspirations to good vocations in the future. 10. Most of the parents were less educated and poor. 11. Their home environments were unhygienic as well as poor from the point of view of children's study. 12. The parents were not bothered about their children's education. 13. Children were not statisfied with their neighbourhood. 14. Half of the neighbours were unaware of the success or otherwise of these children. 15. Peer groups had adverse effects on study habits of children. 16. The mill worker's children did not go to good schools. 17. Their participation in the classroom was average. 18. Teachers did not encourage these groups of children in their studies. 19. The teachers perceived these children as poor students. 20. Unfavourable school factors had a positive relationship with the educational problems of the children,
94. BILQUIS, FATHIMA, The Role of Private Enterprise in Education with special reference to Muslim Educational Organization in Karnataka-A Historical Survey, Ph.D. Edu., Kar. U., 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to find out the felt need for establishing educational institutions for the spread of education by Muslim organizations, (ii) to find out the extent to which administration of education by Muslim organizations had become secular and democratic, (iii) to find out whether Muslim organizations promoted social and national integration through education, and (iv) to find out the financial adequacy or position of these organizations in administering education.
The study encompassed the entire area of Karnataka. While doing so only seven major organizations which were spread over the entire state and Which were managed by different organizations at all levels of education were chosen for an in-depth research study. Data were collected from primary and secondary sources using questionnaires, interview schedules and annual reports. The investigator followed the historical survey as the methodology for conducting the research.
The findings of the study were: 1. The educational organizations chosen for the study revealed to a great extent that they had been successful in fulfilling their obligations and realizing national objectives in the field of education. 2. It was noticed in certain cases that they did suffer from certain deficiencies. The investigator felt very strongly that drawbacks that were noticed in certain respects could be overcome if a certain amount of guidance, direction and assistance was given by the educational administrators who were at the helm of affairs. The investigator was of the opinion that no consistent efforts were made by the authorities at the helm of affairs to improve the situation at any stage. The governmental authorities had not undertaken any corrective measures to set right certain problems. 3. These educational institutions were functioning in a mechanical way without any departure. That is certain unique features-such as offering educational and vocational guidance to students, providing for action research for the benefit of teachers, conducting diagnostic tests and arranging for remedial measures, arrangements for slow learners and gifted children which are of great educational value-were not found in any of the institutions studied. A Many of the educational institutions did not have physical facilities, equipment and instructional materials. S. Teachers working in these institutions did
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not enjoy enough security, stability and privileges in their service conditions. 6. Nowhere was planning at the institution level found.
*95. BISWAS, M., Mentally Retarded and Normal Children- Comparative Study of their Family Conditions, Dept. of Soc., BHU, 1980
The study was conducted to test the following hypotheses: (1) Prevalence of mental retardation is inversely related to the level of socioeconomic class, i.e., more cases of retarded children are found in lower social classes. (2) Marital relations of the parents are not healthy in the families of mentally retarded children. The study also tried to answer questions like whether delinquency and mental retardation were correlated, whether the mentally retarded were unwanted and rejected by their parents, whether quarrelsome and un- happy joint family situations helped in bringing about mental retardation in children, and whether premature loss of one or both parents was more common in the case of mentally retarded children than in the case of normal children.
The sample of the study included 75 mentally retarded children in the 6-14 years age group and 75 normal children in the same age group in Varanasi. The sample of first category was taken from three special institutions meant for mentally retarded children. The tools used for data collection were interview schedules, survey schedule, case history records and Kuppuswami's SES Scale. The groups were matched on the basis of age, parental age and income status. Data were analysed in descriptive form.
The main findings of the study were: 1. The prevalence of mental retardation was inversely related to socio-economic status. Around 71 per cent of mentally retarded children belonged to the families having Rs 100-400 monthly income. 2. The marital relations between parents of retarded children was not healthy as compared to the relations between the parents of normal children. 3. Delinquency and mental retardation were frequently found together, However, mental retardation was found to be neither the specific cause of, nor the outstanding factor in, crime and delinquency. 4. Most of the mentally retarded children were unwanted and rejected by their parents. 5. Quarrelsome and unhappy joint families helped in bringing about mental retardation in the child. 6. Premature death of one or both the parents was found in more of the cases of mentally retarded children in comparison to normal children. 7. Most of the mentally retarded groups belonged to the Vaishya caste having lower income levels. 8. Mental retardation was found to be associated with family conditions.
96. BORA, S., A Study of the Student Movement in Assam since 1916 (1916-47), Ph.D. Hist., Gau. U., 1985
The main aim of the study was to examine the role of the students of Assam as an organized community in bringing about cultural, educational and social changes in the province of Assam as well as their role in the freedom struggle during the period 1916 to 1947.
The broadest range of primary sources and secondary works available in the relevant regional languages and in English were utilized. A number of personalities and student leaders were. interviewed. In dealing with the period an attempt was made to maintain a chronological narrative. However, certain issues requiring a theoretical approach seemed to be interwoven with the chronological approach. The chapterization of the work was based mainly on the important events of the freedom struggle.
Some of the major findings were: 1. The student movement of Assam began at a time when a student movement as such was yet to take shape on an all-India scale. 2. The year 1916 saw the birth of the Assam Chhatra Sanmilan through which students carried on their various activities during the period of the national movement. 3. Though the students of Assam had played an important role and sacrificed much for the motherland, and had taken the lead in bringing about a regeneration of the Assamese people economically, culturally and politically, their services had not been given due recognition. 4. In addition to the mainstream of the national movement among the student community, other important trends were visible. Muslim sentiments were evident as early as 1918 with the beginning of the Assam Muslim Students' Conference which came into being for the welfare of the Muslim students only. Unfortunately, Muslim League activities won the popular support of a large section of the Muslim students of Assam after 1937. These students kept aloof from the Independence movement and pressed for Muslim rights. 5. The contribution of the students of Assam in achieving freedom was very significant in Assam's contribution towards the national movement.
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97. CHAKRABARTI, H., Educational Dynamism in the Social Perspective of Purulia, a Typical Underdeveloped District in West Bengal, Ph.D. Edu., Cal. U., 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to see to what extent the manpower and limited material resources of education were wasted in a backward region at the elementary stage, (ii) to understand the nature of relations between various social stratifications and demand for elementary education, (iii) to understand the nature of supply fa- cilities for elementary education in the region under study, (iv) to understand the nature of the supply of informal and non-formal agencies of education at the elementary level in a backward society, (v) to determine the various socio-economic and socio-cultural prob- lems hindering educational dynamism in a backward society, and (vi) to understand the nature of relations between occupation and demand for elementary education.
The sample consisted of students of 10 primary schools and 8 secondary schools, 46 teachers and 26 social workers of 8 villages. The tools used were a community information blank concerned with general information about the village community and children between 5 + and 14 +; a study schedule for school information concerned with identity, educational opportunity and strength, non-local students and teachers; a check-list for teachers and social workers; and an inter- view schedule for guardians. The design of the study was classificatory in nature. The statistics used were frequency counts converted to percentages and ranks.
The major findings were: 1. The overall rate of educational dynamism was 36-54 per cent for boys and 18 per cent for girls. It was highest for caste Hindus, followed by scheduled castes, and scheduled tribes, and lowest for Muslims. 2. All the groups created demand for primary education. It was, however, directed mostly towards boys. Demand was very poor for upper elementary education for girls of backward classes. 3. Educational opportunities in terms of their utility to the community did not directly resist educational dynamism, but it was not conducive to mass-scale programmes of primary education. 4. Teachers, social workers and guardians differed in their opinions about nonparticipation: teachers considered `ignorance/ illiteracy of guardians' as the major cause for both boys and girls, while social workers considered the `prevalent social habit of not sending children to school', and guardians considered `inconvenient school hours' (for boys) and `prevalent social habits' (for girls) as major causes. Guardians preferred afternoon school hours. 5. The rates of educational dynamism of agricultural and nonagricultural occupational home backgrounds were 61 and 29 per cent respectively. For girls these rates were 53 and 8 per cent.
98. CHANDRASEKARAN, P., Attitude of Rural Women of Tamil Nadu towards the Formal Education of Women, Ph.D. Edu., Madras U., 1982
The major objectives of the study were to find out (i) the attitudes of rural women towards the formal education of women, (ii) whether there was any difference in the attitudes of rural women in the various districts of Tamil Nadu, (iii) the relationship between attitudes of rural women towards the formal education of women and variables such as socioeconomic status of the family, educational level, occupation, age, marital status and the number of female children of the responding women, and (iv) the views of rural women regarding the level of education considered best for girls and the best curriculum for girls. Eight hypotheses were framed based on these objectives.
The sample consisted of 1115 rural women selected at random from the 15 districts of Tamil Nadu. The investigator constructed an attitude scale having 50 statements; its reliability coefficients established by test-retest and spilt-half methods were 0.91 and 0.70 respectively. The face validity and the content validity were calculated. In the case of illiterate women, the interviewer used the scale as an interview schedule Pareek and Trivedi's standardized Socio-Economic Scale for rural people was used to measure the socioeconomic status of the rural women selected for the sample.
The major findings of the study in regard to the attitudes of rural women towards women's education were: 1. The attitudes of rural women towards formal education were positive. 2. There was no significant difference in the attitudes of rural women from different districts. 3. There was no significant difference in the attitudes of rural women of different socioeconomic status or employed status. 4. The age level of responding women, their marital status and the number of female children in the family each played a significant part in the attitude of women towards formal education. 5. More than 70 per cent of women agreed to statements relating to the advantages of women's education but favoured education of girls up to high school level only.
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6. They were of the opinion that in order to encourage schooling of girls, free conveyance to school should be provided for rural girls and overhead costs on books, uniforms, etc. should be met by the government.
99. CHATTOPADHYAY, M., A Probe into the Personally of Adolescent Bengali Girls of Calcutta City for Developing on Idea of their Life-problems at High-School Leaving Age, Ph. D, Appl. Psy., Cal. U. 1981
The main objectives were (i) to study the normative trends of the population-problems and difficulties and adjustment patterns in major spheres of life, (ii) to find out specific characteristics of personality expressions of eight scholastic groups, evident in the population, and (iii) to diagnose the needs of the girls in the eight groups and the barriers generating conflicts and tensions, and other important facts that would provide a helpful frame of reference for parents, teachers and counsellors to understand adolescent girls and to tackle them effectively in different social learning situations. The major subfields were (i) background of family and other development factors, (ii) perceptions and expectations of present and future life, (iii) nature of interpersonal relations with family members and peers. The main enquiry areas were (i) knowledge about assets and limitations of self, home, studenthood, personal convic- tions regarding womanhood and peer life, (ii) existing practices of self, in the family traditions, with the family members and expressed through family outlook, (iii) self-evaluation regarding psycho- physical constitution, family relations, social skills, societal frame of reference, viz., systems and controls.
The sample consisted of 1200 adolescent girls of class X from 40 Bengali medium schools of Calcutta city. The total sample was classified into eight scholastic status groups, determined on the basis of their percentage of marks in the last examination, the topmost group in the range of 72-77 per cent and the lowest group in 30-35 per cent. The design was a stratified sample survey. The data were collected with a self-prepared inventory in the Bengali language intended to explore the adolescent school girls' mental dispositions, knowledge items, practice items and attitude items concerning so- ciability, family relations, psycho-physical constitution and personal-societal relations. The statistical tools used were Pearson's r, chi-square and graphs and charts.
Some of the findings were: 1. There were indications of (a) low awareness about the importance of curriculum subjects and their respective contributions in the preparation for future life; (b) a hidden eagerness for heterosexual friendship; (c) a general trend of cognitive desynthesis in the areas of future womanhood; (d) a general trend of being qualified as a compliant-dependent group, as an authority-compliance type, and an anaclitic moral development trend. 2. With an undercurrent of conflict they were found clinging to the traditional values and ideologies of the community-more importance being attached to ideal wifehood than to any other kind of model of womanhood. 3. About one-tenth of the respondents expressed a dire need for counselling service to minimize their anxiety and tension in relation to several aspects of their anticipated personal relationships and the consequences in future life. 4. The respondents disclosed stratum-wise multi-model characters over some enquiry areas to indicate specialities. 5. The adolescent girls maintained several healthy personality modes but at the same time expressed the rudiments of several other undesirable ones. 6. The researcher developed a theoretical model of personality as individual `as-is' and `as- perceived'.
100. CHAUHAN, V.B., A Comparative Study of Life Tendencies, Meaning of Success and Self-Concept among Harijan and Non- Harijan College Students, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1977
The objectives were (i) to study the life tendencies of harijan and non-harijan students, (ii) to study the meaning of success among harijan and non-harijan students, (iii) to study the concept of self among harijan and non-harijan students. The hypotheses were: (1) Life tendencies of harijan students differ significantly from those of non- harijan students. (2) Harijan and non-harijan students differ significantly with respect to their concept of success. (3) Self- concept differs significantly between harijan and non-harijan students. (4) The life tendencies and concept of success determine the self-concept of a person.
The sample comprised 520 students (260 of each group i.e. harijan and non-harijan). Self-concept was measured with the help of self- concept inventory developed by Bhatnagar and Gaur. The test-retest reliability ranged from 0.60 to 0.81. Meaning of Success Inventory (MSI) was developed by the investigator. The test-retest reliability coefficient was 0.80. Life tendencies were measured with the help of Life's Tendencies Inventory.
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The test-retest reliability was 0.71. The data were analysed with the help of critical ratio and chi-square techniques.
The findings were: 1. More importance was attached to need satisfaction tendency (NST) by harijan students than by non-harijan students. Non-harijan students attached more importance to creative expansion tendency (CET). 2. Non-harijan students showed more homo- geneity in ranking the importance of life's basic tendencies than harijan students within their caste-groups. 3. Harijan students were fully satisfied with self limiting adaptation tendency (SLAT) and non- harijan students were fully satisfied with CET. 4. Non-harijan students showed more homogeneity regarding the degree to which these four basic life tendencies were satisfied than harijan students. 5. The non-harijan students accepted CET and order upholding tendency (OUT) as much more desirable than harijan students did. 6. The harijan and non-harijan students differed significantly as regards the tendency of greatest concern. The harijan students showed the greatest concern for SLAT and need satisfaction tendency (NST); non- harijan students for CET. 7. The non-harijans were comparatively more homogeneous as regards the criteria of success than harijan students. 8. Harijan students regarded `luck', while non-harijan students regarded personal exertion and attributes of personality, as more important. 9. Both groups were homogeneous as regards the various procedures for the achievement of success within their caste groups. 10. Harijan students identified a `family-member' as a model of success while non-harijan students identified `other successful persons' as their model. 11. Non-harijan students made significantly higher self-estimation of achievement and confidencce while harijan students made higher self-estimation of inferiority, withdrawal and emotional instability.
*101. CHINNAPPAN, G., Equalization of Educational Opportunities, Ph.D. Edu., Poona U., 1987
The objectives of the study were (i) to assess the extent of disparity in Income distribution within and between caste groups, (ii) to assess the extent of disparity in the distribution of human capital (particularly education) within and between caste groups, (iii) to identify sources of inequality in income distribution, (iv) to estimate the effect of various factors, such as human capital related factors, labour market related factors and family background related factors on the income distribution of scheduled as well as non- scheduled castes, (v) to find out the extent to which disparity in earnings was reflected over the life-time of an individual, (vi) to pin-point the amount of variation in earnings that could be solely ascribed to differential endowment of human capital, and that due to discrimination in the labour market. (vii) to estimate the functional relationship between one's family background, educational attainment, occupational attainment and income and to deduce the cumulative contribution of the education variable to one's economic success, and (viii) to analyse the influence of education on social mobility.
The required data were collected through a labour force survey conducted by the investigator in Madurai district, Tamil Nadu. Madurai district shares a border with Kerala. Scheduled castes are 15.33 per cent of the total population of the district. The percentage of working population in Madurai district is 43.9. The per- centage of scheduled castes in the labour force is 51.9 in the district. From the list of villages of Madurai district, three villages from each taluka were selected randomly for the study. Besides, all three taluka headquarters and two city areas of Madurai city were included in the sample. In addition, three more villages from other talukas of the district and one more town were added to the sample. About 20, 5 and 2 per cent of households were contacted in the selected villages, towns and city areas respectively. Individual survey schedules were administered to wage-earners in the households. The survey did not include the self-employed, businessmen, farmers, landlords and unemployed, whose earned income could not be easily ascertained. In all, 1180 individual survey schedules could be collected. The survey schedule contained question relating to the individual's characteristics, his occupation, the labour market condition in which he worked, his family background, his residence and the quality and quantity of schooling. The sample included 12 per cent SCs and 88 per cent NSCs. Of the 88 per cent NSCs, 12 per cent were denotified class (DC), 58.2 per cent other backward class (OBC) and 29.8 per cent forward class (FC).
Major findings of the study were: 1. The percentages of persons earning below Rs 400/- per month were 54, 44,23 and 13 among SC, DC, OBC and FC respectively. 2. The average monthly earnings of SC, DC, OBC and FC were Rs 631/-, Rs 661/-, Rs 910/- and Rs 1051/- re- spectively. Thus there was a pronounced degree of disparity between the income distribution of SCs and NSCs 3. The proportion of uneducated workers were
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44, 25, 12 and 3 per cent among SC, DC, OBC and FC respectively. The average level of schooling in these groups was 5.9 years, 7.4 years, 10.4 years and 11.4 years respectively. The average level of schooling of NSCs as a whole was much higher than the average level of schooling of SCs. 4. The average level of experience attained in the labour market by SCs did not differ very much from that of NSCs. The difference in the average level of experience between SCs and NSCs according to different levels of education was also not significant. 5. The social advancement of the caste groups and the level and the shape of their income distributions were correlated. A similar relationship was observed between the social advancement of the caste groups and the level and the shape of their educational distributions. There was inverse relationship between the social advancement of the caste groups and their educational inequality, and direct relationship between the social advancement of the caste groups and the level of their educational distributions. 6. The structure of income distributions and the pattern of educational distributions were very closely associated. A high degree of income inequality was related to a high degree of educational inequality. 7. Variations in earnings were largely explained by individual differences arising from the na- ture of employment, size of the employing firms., endowment of human capital and occupational attainment. Though the family background did not have much direct influence on earnings, it did have a significant indirect role to play in the economic success of SCs as well as NSCs by determining their educational and occupational attainments. 8. The average earnings of SCs were less than those of NSCs due to two main reasons: the differential endowment of productive economic characteristics and the existence of discrimination in the labour market. 9. Education was a crucial factor that explained income inequality between SCs and NSCs. In the case of NSCs higher levels of education were followed by higher returns of education. On the contrary, higher levels of education did not yield very high returns over lower levels of education in the case of SCs. The pattern of occupational distribution, which was primarily the result of educational distribution, was another cause for the earning gaps between SCs and NSCs. 10. Parents' educational level and the educational attainment of children was closely associated.
102. CHOPRA, S., Political Socialization of the Secondary School Pupils, Ph.D. Pol. Sc., JMI, 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to discover the extent of knowledge, awareness, perceptions and attitudes (regarding politics) of the pupils belonging to different schools, (ii) to study the differences in knowledge and awareness of the students belonging to different strata of society, (iii) to study the sensitivity of pupils to the socio-political world, harmony and disharmony, and evils prevailing in the society and how the students of different levels looked at them, (iv) to study the aspirations, expectations and values of our future citizens regarding politics, (v) to discover the role of various aspects of mass media in the process of socialization, (vi) to determine the role of human agents in political socialization, (vii) to discover the consequences of political socialization, and (viii) to study the relationship between political socialization and political vocation.
The tools used for the collection of data were a questionnaire, observation, and content analysis of the syllabus. The variables taken into consideration were age, sex, class, religion and occuption/education of parents. Three hundred students, 100 each from class IX and X and XI, constituted the sample. It was drawn from two convent schools, one government boys' and one government girls' school and one coeducational minority school.
The major findings of the study were: 1. The level of awareness of pupils coming from less-educated and economically lower strata of society was lower than that of their counterparts who were higher in the educational and economic hierarchy. The schools, instead of trying to compensate for deficiencies and handicaps on the home front, tended to reinforce them. 2. The students expressed concern over communal disharmony. There was harmony in feeling and concern over communal violence. According to the students the strongest factors acting against peace and tranquillity were religious differences and distrust of people of different religions. 3. The students were well aware of the decline in moral values and growing corruption in the police force. According to them, control and check on population growth could help to lift the standard of living of the masses. Development of religious tolerance and reforms in politics was also suggested. 4. They all agreed, more or less, on the evils prevailing in the society, but the elite thought more of the decline of morel values and lack of education than the masses. 5. Female respondents more than male were concerned with social evils such as low status of women, dowry, caste system, etc. 6. More stress was laid by boys and girls from government schools on social reforms than the others did. More stress was laid on reforms in administrative structure, police force and spread of education by those coming from the economically well-off and better educated
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 143
class. 7. Providing social security was given more importance by government and minority school pupils, control of prices was also given tremendously more importance by those belonging to the economically lower class; control of population was given much more importance by convent school students than the other three groups. More girls wanted the government to check the growth of population than boys did. 8. Religious education was supported more by the pupils coming from government and Muslim minority schools but very little by convent school pupils. 9. From the students response it was observed that those who had participated in elections, looked forward to election times and those who had not done so eagerly longed for a chance to convass for their favourite candidates. 10. An inverse relationship was found between awareness and participation, i.e. the desire for participation in school politics was higher where awareness was low and it was low where awareness was high. 11. Newspapers were considered the best media for communicating information, followed by radio and television. 12.The late Mrs. Indira Gandhi and Mr. Atal Behari Vajpayee were the most popular heroes on the then existing political scene. While there was an overwhelming support to Mrs. Indira Gandhi from all schools, the support to Mr. Vajpayee came more from government schools. The respondents also gave concrete points in support of their choice. 13. The students wanted a society free from the evils of dowry, ignorance, corruption and crime. They wanted law- breaker to be punished. They wanted honest people on the political scene and friendly relations with other countries. 14. Pupils who were high on awareness and came from economically and educationally high levels of society, showed signs of political reluctance and those who were low in awareness and came from educationally low strata of society showed keenness on taking to a political career. Females were generally less inclined to enter politics than males.
103. CHOUDHURY, M., Cultural Variables in Conservation Training by Self-Transformation and Screening in two Cultures, Ph.D. Psy., Utkal U., 1983
The objectives of the study were (i) to compare the development of conservation and logical thinking among children of the Kondh tribe and semi-urban caste-Hindu society, (ii) to examine the relationship between logical thinking and development of conservation in these two cultures and, (iii) to find out the significance of cultural variables like logical thinking and perceptual rigidity by manipulating these variables through a training procedure designed to counteract the effect of these variables.
The sample of the study consisted of 246 semiurban and 230 tribal children studying in the primary schools of Orissa. These students were administered tests of conservation of number, length, and continuous quantity (liquid). Further from the two samples, 120 semi- urban and 95 tribal children were given a measure of logical thinking. In the second phase of the study, 120 transitional children, i.e., those who conserved number and length but not quantity, were selected for training study. Within each cultural groups, 40 transitional children were randomly assigned to training by self-transformation or screening and 20 children to the control condition of an equivalent number of trials with the standard conservation testing procedure. The chi-square test and analysis of variance were used for analysis of data.
Major findings of the study were: 1. The non-conservers had a significantly higher score on logical thinking than the conservers. 2. The effects of culture and culture-conservation interaction were not significant. 3. There was no difference between the two cultures in terms of children's logical thinking, although within-culture differences were found to exist, particularly for the tribal children of different age groups. 4. With regard to the training effect, it was found that the trained group performed significantly better than the control group on the immediate and delayed tests of conservation of continuous quantity and on the generalization test. 5. On the whole, the study supported the Mohanty-Stewin model of the development of conservation across different cultures.
104. DESAI, U.S., Change and Traditionalism among College Girls, Ph.D. Soc., Guj. U., 1984
The major objective of this study was to examine change and traditionalism among college-going urban girls as well as to obtain summary measures of the subjects' modernity orientations and their overall modernity.
The study was based on a questionnaire survey of 1096 girls studying in the thrid year class of a stratified random sample of twelve Arts colleges in Ahmedabad The questionnaire was designed to seek information re-
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garding the background of the family, educational/ vocational aspirations, academic achievement level, hobbies, exposure to mass media, beliefs in and practice of certain religious ceremonies, etc. Several items were also included so as to elicit opinions regarding mate-selection, caste-endogamy, dowry, premarital sex relations, family planning, etc. With a view to obtaining an overall measure of the traditional/modem attitudes, 14 items of the short form of the `OM (overall measure) scale' of Smith and Inkeles and 30 items of the `Attitudinal Modernity Scale' of Sharma, which measured the modernizing effects of university education on the attitudes and value orientations of college/university Students in the Indian setting, were also included in the questionnaire. Besides, a separate information sheet containing 11 items was prepared for the married girl students. Means and standard deviations of the sum of scores of different scales were obtained. A cross-tabular analysis of different modernity orientations and overall modernity scores with the selected independent variables was done.
The major findings of the study were: 1. The college-going girls manifested relatively high mean scores on scientific and achievement orientations, somewhat lower mean scores on secular and civic orientations, and rather low scores on independence and universalistic orientations. 2. Scores on the overall modernity scale showed that the respondents had appreciably Moved towards modem attitudes, values and behaviour patterns. 3. There was no marked difference, in the modernity of the girl students coming from rural and urban background. 4. The level of parents' education did not provide any clue to modernity orientations of college girls. 5. The respondents had positive views regarding family planning and scientific knowledge concerning this subject, cooking as the main role activity, and living in a joint family after marriage, while negative views were expressed against the dowry system. 6. On the whole, various spheres of preferences and participation in different types of activities reflected changing roles, pre- sumably due to higher education and urbanization,
*105. DESHPANDE, S., An Analytical Study of Leadership Qualities in Junior College Students in Vidarbha Region, Ph.D, Edu., Nag. U., 1983
The main purpose of the study was to identify leadership qualities among junior college students in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra State.
The sample consisted of 1046 boys and girls of classes XI and XII from 22 junior colleges in eight districts of Vidarbha. The tools used for the study were: (i) questionnaire for the students, (ii) interview schedule for the teachers, and (iii) sociometric scale for selecting the leaders. Statistical techniques were used for (i) ranking leadership qualities percentage-wise, (ii) for calculation the coefficient of correlation, and (iii) in preparing diagrams and graphs were used.
The following were some of the major findings of the study: 1. Twenty-four leadership qualities were identified in the junior college students. 2. There was no relationship between parents' education and student leadership qualities. 3. There was no relationship between parents' political/social status and student leadership qualities. 4. There was no significant relationship between parents' economic status and student leadership qualities. 5. There was no significant relationship between parents' occupation and student leadership qua]- ities. 6. The percentage of leaders from various castes was nearly the same. 7. The student leaders gave their preferences to six leadership qualities, viz., persuasiveness, self-confidence, discipline, cooperativeness, love for knowledge, and industry. 8. The student leaders mentioned reading and games as their hobbies. 9. The student leaders had good and cheerful nature, honesty, good conduct, punctuality, cooperativeness, industriousness and good study habits, in the opinion of the lecturers. 10. The student leaders liked doing social work, social service and other social activities in the course of their college career.
106. DEVI, L. D., Sociological and Educational Aspects of Food and Nutrition among the Onges of the Andamans, Ph.D. Psy., Del. U., 1986
The objectives of the study were (i) to study the general condition of the Onges of Andamans, (ii) to investigate the Onges food system, (iii) to make a detailed sociological investigation of the social organisation, culture and habits of the Onges, (iv) to make a detailed study of educational aspects attached to the food habits of Onges, and (v) to study the relationship between the food system and the whole system of the socio-cultural and educational life of the people of the Andamans.
Various books and documentary films on the Onges and other tribes were analysed to gather information on their life-style and food system. The individual approach was followed. By use of questionnaire-cum-
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interview techniques, various Onges tribesmen were interviewed. The data were represented with the help of diagrams, photos, tables, maps, graphs, etc. Simple statistics like measures of central tendency were used to analyse the data.
The main findings of the study were: 1. The Onges live on an isolated island where the surrounding sea and weather conditions remain inhospitable for many months of theyear. The island was extensively covered by dense virgin forests. 2. The island supported an abundant plant and animal fife while its water courses and the adjacent sea provided an abundant supply of food for most parts of the year. The variations in food availability were directly related to ecological changes in the course of the annual cycle. The period of scarcity of food was short. 3. The Onge society had maintained its structural continuity in spite of social change and the breakdown of their local organization. Since social groups based on kin relationships comprised the core of the Onge social structure, the special bond provided by kin relationship continued to play a key role in the procurement, distribution and consumption of food. 4. The technologies and. techniques traditionally used by the Onges in the procurement, processing, cooking and consumption of foodstuffs were simple. 5. Lack of storage and preservation facilities had resulted in the Onges eating fresh and freshly cooked food, and also to their frequently going in search of food. 6. The introduction of new foods and new food technology had brought about a revolutionary change in the food habits of the Onges. New foods which were easily available and could be stored like rice and wheat flour had contributed a great change in their eating habits. 7. The Onges showed a preference for fleshy, fatty, cooked, rich, sweet, fresh, non-fibrous, non-bony, hot, big and soft food to all other types of foods. 8. All the foods had been classified by the Onges as either of animal or vegetable origin. Animal food was the most important food for the Onges. 9. For pregnant woman the usual dietary pattern was altered. This was because the Onges believed that the food consumed by pregnant women was transmitted direct to the foetus. 10. There was no social stigma attached to unmarried, but the Onges expected every man to marry and beget children. 11. Special welfare programmes for Onges were being run by the Andaman administration for making them aware about food habits and food preservation. 12. The aim of elementary education to Onges was to help them in their transition to new ways of life apart from teaching than the 3 r's. 13. Onges children attended balwadi classes. They were held in the community hall every morning between 6/7 a.m., and 9/10 a.m., except on Sundays and other holidays. 14. Education for adults had also begun. Classes were held soon after sunset. Only men were attending them. 15. The government's efforts had not been able to bring about a significant improvement in the food habits of the Onges.
107. DHANDA, J.R., A Study of Attitudes of College Teachers towards Education of Scheduled Caste Students in Aurangabad District, IIE, 1985
The major objectives of the study were (1) to ascertain the attitude of college teachers towards the education of scheduled caste (SC) students at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in Aurangabad district, (ii) to compare the attitudes of scheduled caste teachers and other teachers towards scheduled caste students, (iii) to compare the attitudes of male teachers with those of female teachers towards scheduled caste students, and (iv) to locate the sensitive areas of unfavourable attitudes and suggest measures to improve them.
A total of 200 teachers belonging to various faculties, randomly drawn from all the colleges of Aurangabad city and district, formed the sample. Responses were received from 128 teachers to the attitude scale which was prepared by the researcher.
The major findings were : 1. About 50 per cent nonSC male teachers and 59 per cent non-SC female teachers showed a positively unfavourable attitude to SC students while about 82 per cent SC teachers showed a positively favourable attitude towards the problems of SC students. 2. In the economic and educational areas, SC teachers showed a positively favourable attitude. while in the remaining areas they showed less favourable attitude. It was worth noting that, in the administrative area, non-SC male and female. teachers earned neg- ative scores, which showed that they were negatively oriented towards the educational problems of SC students in this area.
108. DILEEP KUMAR, Caste and Class as Variables Affecting Spoken Language in Primary Class Children, Ph. D. Edu., BHU, 1983
A study on the variations in the Hindi spoken by children of primary school age belonging to different socioeconomic strata and different castes in the eastern part
146 RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS
of Uttar Pradesh was undertaken. A large number of hypotheses pertaining to membership in class, caste and sex groups were set up for study, the central idea behind them being that, as we go down the caste ladder or the socio-economic strata hierarchy, positive aspects of language would be exhibited less and less and negative aspects more and more. About sex, it was just hypothesized that there was positive and significant difference, the direction being left open. The hypotheses were extended to caste-class interaction effects also.
The study was delimited to urban and Hindu children and to children of normal intelligence since variations in language from one religion to another, and in urban and rural areas, were commonly seen in every part of India. A comprehensive Family Background Scale instead of the available socioeconomic status scale was developed by the investigator. This scale covered six dimensions-education,, educational status, occupation, housing conditions, income, and political power. Test-retest (over a three-month gap) reliability was 0.983 and concurrent validity with other scales was above 0.8. For language competence, twelve positive variables, in four groups, and negative variables were identified. A scoring scheme was devised with plus points for positive variables and minus points for negative variables. The sample consisted of 348 boys and girls of age 9-10 studying in class V in 30 primary schools in Varanasi and Gorakhur. They were all children of normal intelligence selected by using the Nonverbal Group rest of Intelligence of Joshi and Tripathi. They belonged to six castes-Brahmin, Kshatriya., Kayastha, Vaishya, Backward Castes and Scheduled Castes. Language data were collected by using the mixed-group conversation method in which small groups of four children each were given topics to discuss. The conversation was observed by the investigator and transcribed on paper. The language samples thus obtained were analysed using the scoring scheme. By analysis of variance, effects of caste, class and sex were investigated. This was done with the total language scores as well as with sub-scores. Interaction effects were studied using graphs.
The study generated the following major findings: 1. Caste was a potent factor influencing the spoken language. Brahmin children were at the top and scheduled caste children at the bottom, but the picture was not clear for ranking of other castes. 2. With regard to classes, the upper class topped in positive aspects, whereas in negative aspects the middle class made the least number of errors. 3. Boys were superior in language to girls.
The implication for education is that, instead of providing better educational facilities to those who are already better off, children of the scheduled castes should be provided a better education so that they can reach the level of the general population.
109. DIWEDI, C.B., An Investigation into the Changing Social Values and Their Educational Implications, Ph.D. Edu., Gor., U., 1983
The objectives of the present study were (i) to investigate the present state of values of postgraduate students and the guardians, (ii) to assess the extent of change in student values in comparison with those of the old generation, and (iii) to suggest educational implication of such changes.
A Social Value Inventory was developed by the researcher. The study was conducted on a sample of 400 postgraduate students and 354 guardians of the age group of 40 to 60 years.
The following conclusions were drawn: 1. The place of residence (rural/urban) had a close relationship with values-religious, ethico- cultural, political and educational. 2. Age-group of the respondents was significantly related with religious, societal, political, economic and educational values. 3. Women were more religious, ethi- cal, cultured and keenly interested in societal problems compared to men. Scores of men were higher on political values than those of women. Thus, sex played an important role in the development of values. 4. The old values were not shared by the modem youth. They were rather sceptical concerning religion. Widow and intercaste mar- riages, love marriages, casteless society, etc. were popular values of the student respondents. 5. Devaluation in the personality, knowledge and character of the political leaders as well as the teachers of the day was revealed. 6. The traditional, caste-wise occupational structure was no longer liked by the students. 7. Students favoured change in the old curriculum of education as to them, it was useless. 8. They liked co-education, and opposed traditional systems of education. They demanded students' participation in academic and administrative decision of educational institutions.
110. DIXIT, R.D., A Socio-psychological Study on the Role of Education in Political Socialization, Ph.D. Psy., Kashi V., 1983
The major objectives of the study were (i) to ascertain
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 147
the role of education in the political socialization of students at different educational levels, (ii) to find out whether there was any relationship between educational level and political attitude, (iii) to find out whether there was any relationship between subject-choice and political attitude, (iv) to find out whether there was any relationship between political affiliation and political attitude, (v) to find out whether there was any relationship between educational level and political attitude, (vi) to find out whether there was any relationship between political affiliation and political concept formation, and (vii) to find out whether there was any relationship between political attitude and political concept formation.
The sample consisted of 320 male students from Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. Their ages range from 16 to 25 years with a mean of 19.36 (SD=2.82). they were from four levels of education, two streams of education (arts/ science) and two levels of family background (political affiliation/non-political affiliation). The tools used were Personal-Bio-Data Schedule, Political Attitude Scale (PAS) with a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.86 and split-half reliability of 0.88, and Scale of Political Concepts. The study was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, the sample was drawn through administering a simple verbal measure of the family's political background. On the basis of scores on this measure, 160 students from families with non-political background and 160 students from families with political background were identified. In the second phase, the PAS was administered to small groups of students. On the basis of their responses, a quantitative score was obtained for each individual. Statistical analysis of the scores on PAS was done by applying the 4x2x2 factorial ANOVA technique.
The major findings were: 1. On political attitude, the effect of educational level was significant. The high school students scored highest (M = 26.07), followed by intermediate (M=23.56), undergraduate (M=22.68) and postgraduate(M=21.88)students.2. The stream of education also had a significant effect with strong political attitude held by arts students (M = 24.54) in comparison with science students (M = 22.5). 3. The effect of political affiliation did not reach the significant level. 4 There was a negative relationship between educational development (levels of education) and scores on PAS. This indicated that, as the educational level rose the score on PAS fell. 5. The strength of political attitude decreased with advancing age. 6. Arts students were more involved in political affairs than science students.
7. The relationship between political concept formation and educational level was multidirectional. In the attainment of some of the political concepts there was an increase with the educational level and in the attainment of various other concepts there was a decrease with educational growth. 8. The educational stream had a significant effect on the attainment of political concepts. Arts students showed significantly higher scores than the science students. 9. A negative relationship was found between political attitude and attainment of political concepts.
111. D'SOUZA, MARY E., Construction of Sociograms to Identify Populars and Isolates in Classroom Situations with a view to Popularizing the Educational Use of the Sociometric Techniques, Ph.D. Edu., Born. U., 1984
The major objectives of the study were (i) to enable the teacher to recognize the interaction patterns prevalent in school classes, (ii) to familiarize the teacher with an innovation in education-sociometry, (iii) to enable the teacher to get a fairly comprehensive picture of the structure of social relations in the entire class through the use of the sociometric technique, (iv) to identify various types of sociometric categories, (v) to provide a picture of the underlying social structure of a group in order to discover the relation of a group member to the group as a whole, (vi) to identify populars and isolates and verify desirable and undesirable traits that render them socially acceptable or unacceptable, and (vii) to enable the teacher to handle the isolates in such a way as to improve their social acceptability.
The design of the research for this study was descriptive in nature and used analytical and comparative methods. The total sample comprised 939 students of which 502 were girls and 437 were boys from ten schools. tools employed in this study were the Sociometric Test Questionnaire, a questionnaire to collect personal data and information on the pupil's family background, blanks to enlist traits which rendered pupils socially acceptable and socially unacceptable, Bell's Adjustment Inventory to measure the social adjustment of pupils, an interview schedule for the teachers, Teacher's Rating Scale for rating sociability of the class, and a check list to indicate academic achievement of the pupils to be filled in by the teachers. The responses of the students to various questionnaires were analysed by using percentages.
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The major findings and suggestions of the stud were: 1. The sociograms revealed the existence of a wide variety of interaction patterns in the class. 2. The interaction patterns kept changing in many ways as the individual worked out his social destiny. 3. The sociometric techniques enabled the presentation of a comprehensive picture of the structure of social relations in a class. 4. An understanding of the role played by an individual in a group gave him his sociometric category in the group. 5. The sociometric provided a rational way of organizing sociometric results. 6. The identification of the isolates in the sociogram provided therapeutic handling by teachers.
Teachers should be trained to incorporate sociometric techniques in their day-to-day teaching with the help of simple and readily available sociometric tools.
112. GANGOPADHYAY. M.K., Social-phychological Determinants of the Migratory Rural Students and Their Adjustment Problems, Ph.D. Appl. Psy., Cal. U., 1984
The objective of the study was to find out the factors responsible for migration of rural students to urban institutions in spite of the availability of an educational facility in their own rural set-up. For this, the hypotheses for examination were: (1) The socio-economic and family background of those students who have come to urban institutions for continuing their class Xi and XII course (which they could do in their local, rural schools) are not different from those of non-migrated rural students, but different from those of urban matched group. (2) Their choice of urbanity/rurality is different from those of the non-migrated rural group. (3) Their social values are different. (4) Their alienation factor is different from that of the non-migrated rural group. (5) Their stress factor is different from that of the non-migrated group. (6) Their adjustment with the urban group is doubtful.
The sample consisted of 300 male students studying in Calcutta colleges who had migrated from rural schools, 300 male students studying in rural higher secondary schools, and 300 male students studying in Calcutta colleges, having permanent residence and passing Madhyamik (Class X) examination from Calcutta schools. The total sample thus consisted of 900 students of classes XI and XII. The tools used were Family Background Information Schedule, Rurality- Urbanity Choice Questionnaire, Rokeach Social Value Survey, Dean's Alienation Scale, Gangopadhyay's Stress Determination Scale (reliability=0.76 and validity=0.82), and Rural-Urban Students' Adjustment Inventory. The experimental control group design was used to test the proposition and the statistical techniques used were the chi-square test and the t-test.
The main findings were : 1. The students who had gone to urban institutions for continuing their class Xi and XII course (which they could complete in their local schools) did not vary in respect of family background from those of their non-migrated rural counterparts but varied from their urban counterparts. 2. Their choice of urbanity/rurality varied from those of their non-migrated counterparts. 3. Their social values differed from those of their non- migrated counterparts. 4. Their alienation factor varied from that of the non-migrated group. 5. Their stress factor differed from that of the non-migrated group. 6. Their adjustment with their urban peers showed incompatibility.
113. GANGOPADHYAY, S.R., Sociological Study of the Causes of Dropouts and Repeaters in Secondary Schools (A Comparative Study), Ph.D. Social Sciences, Bhagalpur U., 1985
The objectives of the study were (i) to ascertain the extent of wastage and stagnation at secondary school level in government secondary schools of boys and girls of Udaipur City (India) and Montserrado County (Republic of Liberia), (ii) to analyse the causes of this wastage, and (iii) to determine the relative importance of each cause. The main hypotheses were: (1) The rate of dropout is negatively related to the pupil's age, academic backwardness and size of the family. (2) The rate of dropout is negatively related to the socioeconomic status of the family and the community. (3) The rate of dropout is negatively related to some school aspects, viz.. its student population; qualification, teaching experiences and income of its teaching staff, and its building and other facilities.
The descriptive survey method was followed. Ten boys' and girls' high schools were selected (five from Kakata city, Liberia, and five from Udaipur city, India). Students admitted in class VI (India) and VII (Liberia) in 1974-75 were studied till they had appeared in the final secondary school examination of the Board of Secondary Education (India) and Ministry of Education (Liberia) in 1977-78. At least 24 dropouts and repeaters from amongst the school leavers and failures
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of both the sexes and their parents were interviewed. The School Information Blank and five interview schedules (for dropouts, parents or guardians of dropouts, repeaters, parents or guardians of repeaters and teachers) were used. A five-year progress chart was used for each school. Causes of school-leaving were also noted from the scholars' registers.
Some of the major findings were: 1. Fifty-two per cent of the students left school without completing secondary education. 2. The percentages of dropouts in boys', girls' and mixed schools were 70, 56 and 43 respectively. 3. The percentage of dropouts was 53 in classes VI to VIII and was 12 in classes IX and X in cases of boys' and girls' schools. 4. The percentage of dropouts was 61 among boy failures. 5. The percentage of repeaters was 27 among girls and 20 among boys. 6. The extent of stagnation in the schools was 26 per cent. 7. About 70 per cent of the educational efforts on the part of the school system went waste. 8. There were more dropouts among boys and more repeaters among girls. 9. In mixed schools, 39 per cent were repeaters, 42 per cent were dropouts. 10. The rate of dropouts and repeaters was less in mixed schools and more in boys' schools. 11. The main causes for wastage and stagnation were dropouts' and repeaters' apathy to English and a dislike for mathematics, lack of educational guidance, poor study habits, and inability to adjust in a new situation.
114. GARHOK, R.K., An Investigation into the Per- sonality Characteristics of Orphans, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1973
The objectives were (i) to determine the personality make-up of orphans covering the areas of adjustment, attitude, personality traits and needs, (ii) to find out if there existed any difference between orphans and non-orphans on the major personality dimensions under study' (iii) to determine whether orphan children developed any particular personality pattern. The hypotheses were: (1) There is no significant difference in the personality characteristics of orphans and non-orphans. (2) Orphans and non-orphans do not vary from one an- other in their personality adjustment. (3) There is no significant difference in respect of attitudes of orphans and non-orphans. (4) Orphans and non-orphans do not differ significantly in their personality traits. (5) Orphan and non-orphan groups were not significantly different from each other in respect of their needs
The sample comprised 200 subjects. Of these, 100 were orphans (50 males and 50 females) drawn from orphanages and protective homes in the main cities of UP. The remaining 100 (50 males and 50 females) were non-orphans drawn from the cities of UP. The age range of this group was from 13 + to 15 +. The main criterion for selecting orphans was that they must have lived for at least three years in an orphanage. The tools used were Saxena's Adjustment Inventory, Cattell's High School Personality Questionnaire, Edward's Personal Preference Schedule, Personal Data Schedule and Raven's Progressive Matrices. An attitude scale was developed by the investigator. The test-retest reliability of the scale was 0.94. The data were analysed with the help of t-test.
The findings were: 1. The personality make-up of the orphans as a group was different from that of the non-orphans. The orphans showed psycho-neurotic trends in the form of exhibition of more negative emo- tion, feelings of anxiety, inferiority, dejection, helplessness, insecurity, shyness, reserve, passivity, anxiety and emotional instability. 2. Orphans seemed to acquire a feeling of hostility towards authority and society. 3. Orphans had a less positive attitude towards their elders and a more negative attitude towards society than non-orphans. 4. Home, social adjustment, and health adjustment were unsatisfactory among orphans. 5. Orphans' personality was dominated by negative emotions. 6. Orphan boys as well as girls had a less positive attitude towards life, humanity and religion than non-orphans. 7. Orphans obtained higher scores than non-orphans on needs of abasement, succorance, aggression, affiliation and heterosexuality, while the latter scored high on needs of achievement, order, change, endurance and autonomy. 8. Data of case histories revealed that orphans had a less positive attitude towards religion, were more aggressive and sensitive, less cheerful, less cooperative and less social in comparison with non-orphans.
115. GHOSE, S.C., Teacher-Students Relationship and its Impact on Student Unrest, Ph.D. Soc. and Social Anthrop., NBU, 1985
The main objectives were to inquire into (i) whether the continued authoritarian and negligent behaviour of teachers through the ages- from the Vedic down to present times-had driven the students of the present to behave indifferently and disrespectfully in relation to
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their teachers and others, (ii) whether the attitudes, including the political attitudes and personal outlooks of the present teachers contributed to the aggravation of teacher-student relations as is witnessed these days, and (iii) whether the strained teacher-non- teacher relationship played any role in the destabilization of the teacher-student relationship.
The research design had two aspects, historical and contemporary. In the historical portion, analyses of the data from primary and secondary sources was made for ancient, medieval and pre-independent India. The contemporary situation was studied empirically by a researcher-made questionnaire for the sample, supplemented by interview and participant observation. The sample consisted of 400 respondents, 100 teachers, 270 students and 30 non-teaching staff of seven nonprofessional colleges (six coeducational and one women's), at least one from each of the five districts of North Bengal. The data were presented and analysed in descriptive language, along with tables and charts.
The major findings were: 1. The peremptory and perfunctory attitudes of teachers, among others, were largely responsible for the indisciplined behaviour or indifferent attitude of students towards their teachers. 2. The authoritarian attitudes of the present teachers were largely influenced by those of the past, down from the Vedic age. 3. The narrow personal outlook and attitudes, including the political attitude, of the teachers contributed to a great extent to the problem of student unrest. 4. The strained teacher-non-teacher relationship influenced the teacher-student relationship or in other words, influenced students to treat their teachers with indifference.
*116. GOSWAMI, K., A Study of the Problems of Working Mothers and Their Impact on Their PreSchool Children, with special reference to the City of Gauhati, Ph.D. Edu., Gau. U., 1987
The main objectives of the study were (i) to study the socioeconomic background of working mothers, (ii) to study the problems of working mothers, their role conflict between their roles as mothers and housewives and employees, (iii) to study the working conditions and the existing facilities available for working mothers and their children, and (iv) to assess the status of pre-school education with reference to Assam.
A survey was conducted on a random sampling basis on 150 working mothers who were employed either in the organized or unorganized sector. Those working women were selected who had children of the age-group of up to six years; only pre-school children were selected. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used. An interview schedule was used for working women. Five case studies of five working mothers of different backgrounds and five case studies of five preschool children of these mothers were completed to find out their problems and their impact on the children. Percentage was mainly used to analyse data.
The study revealed: 1. There was a multidimensional impact on children of working mothers. The most vulnerable section was the unlettered and low-paid working mothers who were as ignorant of the importance of adequate child care as they were unaware of the facilities available. 2. Their children were brought up amidst poverty and ignorance because even the minimum of the scanty facilities had not filtered down to them. 3. The lower-middle-class, middle-class and affluent working mothers were also plagued by anxieties, not because they. could not afford the facilities but because the facilities available were not at par with the demand. They suffered from tremendous strain because they had to harmonize the two roles of mother and worker.
117. GOSWAMI, N.S., A Study of Value Orientation of Post-Basic Schools in Gujarat, Ph.D. Edu., SPU. 1983
The objectives of the study were (i) to study the educational moral, social, religious, cultural, aesthetic and economic values in post- basic schools of Gujarat, (ii) to survey the present status of the values in the schools of Gujarat on the basis of Gandhiji's axiology of education, (iii) to study the impact of Gandhian thought in the development of the life of students of post-basic schools, (iv) to compare the different values among students and teachers of post-basic schools and ordinary schools, and (v) to study the value orientation of students and teachers of post-basic schools.
Three tools namely,' Allport-Vernon and Lindzey Value Questionnaire, the Value Orientation Questionnaire constructed by the investigator, and a Scale for Teachers' Values constructed and standardized by S.P. Kulshreshta were used for collecting the data. The test-retest reliability and split-half reliability of the questionnaire constructed by the investigator were
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found to be 0.82 and 0.93 respectively. In order to compare the different values among students and teachers of post-basic schools and ordinary secondary schools, the tools were administered to 1100 students of class X of 80 post-basic schools and 1100 students of class X of 80 general schools selected at random. A scale for teach- er's values was administered to 250 teachers of 80 post-basic schools and 250 teachers of 80 secondary schools selected at random. The mean, SD and mean differences were computed and the t-test was used to test the significance of differences between the two means.
The major findings were: 1. The mean differences of scores of theoretical, social and religious values between the teachers of post- basic schools and teachers of ordinary schools were highly significant and were in favour of teachers of post-basic schools. Theoretical, social and religious values of teachers of post-basic schools were better than those of teachers of ordinary schools. 2. The mean differences of scores of economic, aesthetic and political values between the teachers of post-basic schools and teachers of ordinary schools were highly significant and the differences were in favour of teachers of ordinary schools. The economic, aesthetic and political values of teachers of ordinary schools were better than those of teachers of post-basic schools. 3. The theoretical, social and religious values of girls studying in post-basic schools were better than the values of girls studying in ordinary schools. 4. The economic and aesthetic values of girls studying in ordinary schools were better than those of girls studying in post-basic schools. The mean difference of political values of girls was not significant. 5. The mean differences of scores of theoretical, social and religious values were significant and were in favour of boys studying in post-basic schools. 6. The mean differences of scores on economic, aesthetic and political values were significant and were in favour of boys studying in ordinary schools. 7. The post-basic schools provided a better atmosphere in schools to inculcate moral, social and religious values and Gandhian thoughts of self-reliance and cleanliness among students than ordinary schools. The students of post-basic schools were better in these values and Gandhian thoughts than students of ordinary schools.
118. GOUR, P.N., Student Unrest in the Universities of Bihar (1967-72), Ph.D.Arts, Bhagalpur U.,1978
The main aim of the research was to study the problem of student unrest in the universities of Bihar during 1967-72.
A sociological and depth study was conducted. Both primary and secondary sources were used. Content analysis of daily newspapers, government reports, etc. was made. A random sample of 100 students of different universities of Bihar was drawn and a comprehensive questionnaire was administered. Depth-interviews with a select number of knowledgeable persons (teachers, educational administrators, guardians, leaders of public opinion, etc.) were conducted. Types and causes of student unrest were studied. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were made. Remedial measures were suggested.
Some of the major conclusions were: 1. The problem of student unrest was a deep and complex problem, which was multifaceted. The underlying anxiety and frustration were the real reasons for a person's desire to release his pent-up feelings. In Bihar, the first phase of students' restlessness had prevailed, with unprecedented aggressiveness, during 1967-72. All the five state universities had to face one crisis after another due to student turmoil on their campuses. The violence resulting from student activities had taken a dangerous turn. 2. Some of the major causes of student unrest were college and university examinations, general mural and extra-mural demands of students, troubles with government, police, and college/university authorities on local issues, troubles with bus operators, taxi-keepers, etc., and caste or group rivalries among students.
*119. HAZARY, S.C., Students Politics in Orissa: A Case Study of the Student Political Elites of the Revenshaw College, 1938-79, Ph.D. Pol. Sc., Utkal U., 1981
The primary objective of the study was to discern the emergence of the student leaders and the trend of leadership of Revenshaw College, Cuttack, an old and prestigious educational institution in the state of Orissa. The study covered both on-campus and off-campus student politics.
The study was conducted with the help of analysis of available literature and a questionnaire/interview survey. The investigator used a self-made questionnaire and interview schedule for data collection. The sample of 184 respondents included the office-bearers of the institution from 1938 to 1979, the contestants for different positions in the students' union, and the leaders of
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various student organizations. Data were collected through personal contacts with the respondents as well as through the mail. The participant observation technique was also adopted for data collection.
The major findings of the study were: 1. A large chunk of leaders had middle and lower-middle-class background, and belonged to rural areas and uppercaste families. They belonged to unpoliticized families. Most of them were students of humanities and social sciences. They were residents of college hostels and had taken leadership positions in hostel associations and activities prior to assuming leadership in the college union. Women students were under- represented so far as student government and leadership were concerned. 2. The college union had been the main focus and place of student power of the state. The leaders contested the positions with the purpose of serving the student community. A majority of them had a good academic record and displayed a careerist orientation which was detrimental to a political career. They had banked upon either 'money power' or 'show of force'. Defeated leaders attributed their defeat primarily to sectarian politics, mainly 'faculty' and 'class' feelings. 3. Most of the student leaders had depended on parental and friends' sources for financing their elections. Most of them were affiliated to student associations. 'Ideology' and 'organizations' were yet to make any significant impact on the students of the institution. 4. The hardworking leftist students organisations like the AISF, SFI and DSO failed to recruit substantial numbers of members owing primarily to their division and indulgence in mutual re- crimination. Among the rightist forces, the ABVP widened its base and was able to create a committed cadre. Defection was not a significant feature of student politics in the institution. 5. The majority of the student leaders considered interaction with political parties and leaders prejudicial to the permanent interests of students. They considered purely political roles for students as inimical to their interest. Only about onefourth of the leaders agreed that student union activities distracted students from their academic interests. 6. Students' politics of the college played a major role in two students movements, viz., the 'Sima Andolan' of 1956 and the agitation against the state ministry in 1964. 7. Most of the student leaders were very much against the ban on elections to the college union. 8. Student politics had been mainly 'interest oriented'. Student political elites had generally taken keen interest in improving the physical facilities in the college and in protecting student interests. Quite a good number of student leaders fought for social issues, but these were mostly related to the promotion and the protection of regional demands. 9. The objectives and goals of student political elites were generally campus-oriented rather than society-oriented.
120. JAIN, N.P., Culture Stratum and Personality Fac- tors as Correlates of Parenting (Fathering) in High, Backward and Scheduled Caste People of Mainpuri District (UP), Ph.D. Psy., Mee. U., 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to study parenting with a view to determining atypical characteristics of parents as related to personality factors, culture stratum and caste, (ii) to explore the mutually affecting roles, as well as the directions among personality factors, culture stratum and caste while contributing to parenting with simultaneous operations, (iii) to evolve an operational structure for parenting in terms of various defined roles so that its expanding connotations may provide a useful aid to future research in the area, (iv) to explore new vistas with additional insights in the vitally important field to parenting through a multi-variate study programme, and (v) to explore new problem areas in the field that demand appropriate and useful researches and are promising in terms of their future prospects.
The sample comprised 240 families. Out of 240, 80 were from high castes, 80 from backward castes and 80 from Scheduled Castes. The study employed a multivariate functional design. The independent variables were culture stratum (rural-urban), personality factors (high-low), and caste (high, backward or scheduled). The dependence variables were love, hate, democratism, autocratism, independence and dependence. Personality was measured with the help of 16PF adapted by S.D. Kapoor. The test-retest reliability ranged from 0.58 to 0.89 and validity coefficients ranged from 0.77 to 0.96. The parenting style was measured with the help of the Multidimensional Parenting Scale developed by N.S. Chauhan, C.P. Khokhar and V. Singh. The dimensions covered were love, encouragement, acceptance, progressiveness, democratism, independency, dominance, positive dimensions as a whole, hate, rejection, autocratism, discouragement, submission, conservatism, dependency, and negative dimensions as a whole. The test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from 0.49 to 0.88, and validity coefficients from 0.63 to 0.97. The data were analysed by using analysis of variance and Duncan's Range Test.
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 153
The findings were: 1. Fathering of hate towards children was a rural phenomenon. It related to people of the Scheduled Castes. 2. Fathering of love towards children characteristically related to urban high caste and to rural Scheduled Caste parents. 3. Fathering of democratic behaviour towards children was a function of emotional dryness. It was a characteristic of Scheduled Caste parenting. It was urban in strong ego and rural in weak ego parents. 4. Fathering of autocratic treatment of children was a low-caste phenomenon and was characteristically a byproduct of high ergic tension. It possessed urban threats rural social boldness and high ergic tension. 5. Fathering of independency towards children was characteristically affectothymic. It was a feature of parents of high-caste, of rural backward-caste parents and of emotionally dry urban Scheduled Caste parents. 6. Fathering of dependency towards children was a low-caste phenomenon and belonged to related rural parents.
*121. JAMOD,S.K., Social Relations of the Boys Studying in Primary Schools of Bhavnagar-A Sociological Research, Ph.D. Soc., Sau. U., 1982
The main objectives of the research were (i) to get an idea about social relation and friendship emerging out of mutual interaction of boys studying in the classroom, out of the classroom but in school, out of school, in the streets or society, (ii) to study the group activities of the boys at all these places with reference to the pri- mary group, the same age-group emerging out of social and personal relations, and (iii) to study the influence of various factors and the social background while the boys are involved in group activities.
The social relations of the boys studying in class VII in the schools of Bhavnagar was considered the main research problem. There were 115 primary schools run by the municipality and private trusts, out of which 37 having class VII, with a total population of 2005 boys, were selected. The study was restricted to 10 per cent of the total population (200 boys). The random number technique was used to select the sample. To collect the basic information, the tools used were direct observation, a questionnaire and personal interview.
The major findings were: 1. The highest number of boys, i.e. 84 per cent, wanted to adopt prestigious professions. 2. There was a tendency to have more relations and friendship with brilliant boys. 3. There were closer relations and friendship among the boys who joined together in different activities at school and outside. 4. By studying and playing together, by exchange books and notes, by participating in class or school elections, the boys acquired a sense of discipline and democracy. 5. Student life was influenced by friends.
122. JAYAKUMARI, S., Communal Attitudes of College Students in Kerala: A Psychological Analysis, Ph.D. Psy., Ker. U., 1981
The main objective was to study the communal attitudes of college students belonging to different communities in Kerala. The hypotheses were: (1) Each community will prefer itself most (reject itself least) for purposes of intimate relationships. (2) Each community will describe itself only with complimentary epithets. (3) Each community will describe itself as the community most liked. (4) College students with high communal prejudice will differ from those with low communal prejudice in terms of personality traits crucial to successful social living, and in important value variables.
The sample for the study was 558 postgraduate students drawn from a total population of 2990 enrolled in 41 educational institutions in the state. The tools used were the Social Rejection Scale which was an adaptation of Crespi's Social Rejection Thermometer, a Stereotype Checklist prepared to survey the stereotype images prevalent about the different communities, an Attitude Scale to measure the attitudes of the students towards different communities, a Temperament Scale (Mathew) to survey the temperament of the sample, scale to measure values (Mathew, 1968), and a personal data blank to obtain personal details.The data were analysed by calculating the average desirability value for each community, based on the opinions on different aspects expressed by all the communities which gave it average rank positions through indirect and direct ranking procedures and analysing the scores for each variable separately.
The major findings were: 1. Communal prejudice existed in the sample. 2. Each communal group preferred itself most for intimate relationships and gave next preference to that community which was closest to it in the caste hierarchy. 3. Social acceptance was based on the categorization of forward and backward communities. 4. Each community described itself with complimentary epithets only, but described other communities with both complimentary and non- complimentary epithets.
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5. Each community considered itself the most liked community. 6. Likes and dislikes for each community did not differ for direct and indirect responses. 7. The rank orders of communities based on the subjects liking were independent of ranks based on prevalent stere- otypes of the communities. 8. Groups with high communal prejudice differed from those with low communal prejudice, in sociability, emotional stability, objectivity, friendliness, personal relations, theoretical value, economic value and social value and thoughtfulness.
123. JAYASWAL., R., Modernization of Educated Youth: A Socio-Psychological Study in Selected Regions of Uttar Pradesh, Ph.D. Soc., Avadh U., 1980
The objectives of the investigation were (i) to study the extent to which contemporary Indian educated youth were oriented to their internal and external social system, (ii) to find out the extent to which they were conscious of societal changes and transformations occurring due to modernization of Indian society, (iii) to assess whether they were self-centred or their horizons had widened to the whole nation and the world, (iv) to study how they were forging adaptability in their personalities appropriate to modem life, and (v) to study the magnitude of their proneness to respond to the call of modernity and the demands of a modernizing society.
The sample of the study consisted of 300 educated youth from university and affiliated colleges of five districts (Allahabad, Lucknow, Faizabad, Sultanpur and Pratapgarh) of Uttar Pradesh selected on the basis of random sampling. Tools of the study were: Cosmopoliteness Test. Empathy-Fatalism Scale, and Activism Test-all prepared by the investigator. Correlation, chi-square, factor- analysis, etc. were used for analyzing the data.
The findings of the study were: 1. The cosmopoliteness scores of the sample indicated that more than 68 per cent were cosmopolites. 2. The mean and median values for empathy were higher than mean and median values for fatalism. 3. The chi-square analysis suggested that the cosmopoliteness was reinforced by empathic personality, whereas a fatalistic personality was an obstruction in its development. 4.The sample population found to be active was 56.6 per cent. 5. Maintenance of the discrepancy between the principle and practice of modernity was more widespread in the sample population belonging to educated families, young men, the unmarried members of nuclear families, Sikhs and Muslims, lower castes, and youth from lower socio-economic-status backgrounds as compared to the sample population of rural, educated male, teenagers and young-adults, members of joint families, Hindus, Jains, and Christians, upper castes, and those from higher and middle socio-economic-status backgrounds. 6. Urban, female, and Muslim community youth were more cosmopolite and active than rural, male and youth belonging to other religious communities. 7. The teenagers were more cosmopolite but the young-adults tended to show more active inclinations. 8. The unmarried members of nuclear families, and those of upper socioeconomic status background in the sample were more cosmopolite but less active than the married members of joint families, and lower socioeconomic status background sample. 9. Lower caste youth were less cosmopolite than upper-caste youth and tended to express less activism. 10. A positive correlation was found between cosmopoliteness and activism.
124. JHA, S.K., Family Structure, Parental Behaviour and Conservatism in Tribal and Non-tribal College Students of Santhal Parganas, Ph.D. Psy., Bhagalpur U., 1986
The main alms of the study were (i) to compare the tribal people of Santhal Parganas Division of Bihar State with non-tribals of the same region regarding their family structure variables, six kinds of maternal and paternal behaviour, and conservative and liberal atti- tudes, and (ii) to investigate the intercorrelationship between these variables in the two groups of people. Twelve hypotheses were examined.
A random sample of 200 tribal and 200 non-tribal undergraduate students was selected from the colleges of Santhal Parganas. The two groups were matched in respect of age, sex, educational level, family income, occupation, education and area of residence. A Conservatism Scale (CS) was developed through tryouts, item-analysis, etc. Test- retest and split-half reliability, content, concurrent and construct validity, and percentile norms for CS were determined. Along with CS, personal data sheet and Ojha's Parental Behaviour Questionnaire (PBQ) were used. Split-half reliability and construct validity of PBQ were estimated. Factor anal-
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ysis of the scales of PBQ was done. Mean, SD, chisquare test, t-test, correlation, multiple-regression analysis etc. were employed for drawing conclusions.
The major findings were: 1. Tribal college students were more conservative than non-tribal students. Females were more conservative than males. 2. Parental protection, rejection and restriction accelerated conservatism. Parental love or neglect, family size and birth order were not associated with conservatism. 3. By and large, family size, birth order and family system (except mother's love in the non-tribal group) did not influence parental behaviour. Mothers of joint families, compared to those of nuclear families, were more affectionate towards their children. The joint family system was associated with a higher level of conservatism. 4. There was no difference between tribals and non-tribals regarding family type, family size, and birth order. Tribals reported their parents to be more controlling, protecting and rejecting but less permissive as compared to non-tribals. 5. In the tribal group sons suffered more ne- glect and rejection from their parents while daughters received more protection. In non-tribal groups, sons received more restriction, neglect and rejection while daughters received more love and permissive treatment from their parents. 6. Both CS and PBQ had fairly high reliability and validity. In PBQ, three similar factors contributed significantly in father and mother forms of the test. They were termed as affection control and relaxation.
*125. JINDAL, B.L., Schooling and Modernity, Dept. of Sociology, Government PG College, Hissar, 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to examine the modernizing effects of school education on the rural setting, (ii) to determine the contribution of education towards the promotion of the dimensions of modernity, (iii) to explore the modernizing effects of an urban school in comparison with a rural school, (iv) to examine the role of urban schooling in promotion of the dimensions of modernity, (v) to determine the contribution of select components of a high ranking school towards student modernity, and (vi) to evaluate the independent impact of the level of education in the high-ranking school on student modernity partialing out the effect of other variables.
The sample of the study consisted of 465 students from three high schools of Hissar, Haryana, 72 non-school adolescents of the 12 to 16 age-group, 32 teachers of three schools, and 40 parents. The Modernity Scale of Sharma (1979), one schedule for school adolescents, one schedule for non-school male adolescents, one schedule for parents, one schedule for teachers and headmasters, and the OCDQ of Sharma (1973) were used for data collection. Statistical techniques like mean, SD, t-test, chi-square test and correlation techniques were used for analysis of data.
The findings of the study were: 1. The school-going male adolescents were significantly more modern than the non-school-going boys in rural areas. 2. The urban residents were more modernized than their rural counterparts. 3. The students of the high-ranking urban schools were more modernized than their counterparts from low-ranking urban schools. 4. The level of education was positively related to student modernity in all the three sample schools. 5. The correlation between the level of education and student modernity was independent of the intervening variables, such as sex, age, domicile, socioeconomic status, urban experience, etc. 6. Education was good promoter of universalistic and civic dimensions, whereas it was not as conducive to the development of a secular and independent orientation among students. 7. A significant positive relationship was established between the students' academic performance and their modernity scores. 8. The school organizational climate was associated with modernity to a high extent. Sex, father's income and parents' English medium schooling were found to be significantly related to students modernity.
126. JOGINDER, Alienation of Urban Youth : A Study in relation to Personality, Achievement and Academic Achievement, Ph.D. Edu., Pan. U., 1984
The objective of the study was to test the following hypotheses : (i) Alienation has a negative relationship with age. (ii) Alienation has a negative relationship with neuroticism. (iii) Alienation has a negative relationship with extroversion. (iv) Alienation has a negative relationship with the Lie-Scale (social desirability). (v) Alienation has a negative relationship with achievement motivation. (vi) Neuroticism has negative relationship with age. (vii) Extroversion has a negative relationship with age. Age is positively associated with scores on the Lie-Scale (social desirability). (viii) Academic achievement has a positive relationship with age. (ix) Neuroti-
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cism has a negative relationship with academic achievement. (x) The Lie-Scale (social desirability) has a negative relationship with academic achievement.
The investigation was concerned with studying the influence of three variables, viz., personality, achievement motivation and academic achievement on alienation. The personality varied in three ways-neuroticism, extroversion and introversion; achievement motivation varied in two ways-high and low; similarly academic motivation varied in two ways-high and low. A sample of 480 students from three types of colleges of Chandigarh, viz., coeducational, girls' and boys' was selected. The students were studying in pre- university, three-year degree course Part I, II and III and were in the age range of 16 to 25 years. The study focussed attention on the factors of personality, academic achievement and achievement motivation in relation to alienation of urban youth. The 3 X 2 X 2 design was followed in the study. The first factor referred to three types of colleges, whereas the last two factors were at two levels (high and low) of the other variables. The following tools were used in the study: (i) the Eysenck Personality Inventory (1964); (ii) the Lynn (1969) Achievement Motivation Questionnaire; (iii) the Leo Srole (1956) Alienation Scale; (iv) the scores of students at the last annual examination. The data were analysed with the help of t-test F- value, product-moment correlation, multiple correlation and factor analysis.
The findings of the study were: 1. The students of girls' colleges obtained the highest alienation scores followed by the students of coeducational and boys' colleges. 2. The students of boys' colleges were the oldest, followed by coeducation college students and girls' college students. 3. Students going to the girls' colleges obtained the highest scores in academic traits followed by coedu- cational students and boys' college students. 4. Students going to coeducational colleges obtained the highest neuroticism scores followed by girls' college students and boys' college students. 5. The students of coeducational colleges obtained the highest extroversion scores followed by boys' college students and girls' college students. 6. The students of boys' colleges obtained the highest Lie-Scale (social desirability) scores, followed by coeducational college students and girls' college students. 7. The students of girls' colleges obtained the highest achievement motivation scores, followed by boys' college students and coeducational college students. 8. Lie- Scale scores, in addition to academic achievement, neuroticism and extroversion were significantly correlated with and were good predictors of alienation in coeducational and boys' college groups. 9. Achievement motivation was a good predictor of alienation in the case of the coeducational and boys' college sample.
127. JOSHI, N.D., Socio-Cultural and Educational Conditions of Adivasis in Kerala, Ph.D. Edu., Ker. U., 1985
The major objectives of the study were (i) to survey the socioeconomic and educational conditions of the Adivasis (tribals), (ii) to ascertain the rate of literacy, enrolment and drop-out, (iii) to measure knowledge of basic words and concepts and other factors which facilitated/hindered formal education of the Adivasis, (iv) to rate the,awareness of and cooperativeness with developmental agencies, receptivity to progressive ideas, attitudes, etc. which might be relevant for nonformal education of the Advasis, (v) to survey the folk arts of the tribals and analyse their educational potentialities, and (vi) to analyse the environmental situation of the tribals from the point of identifying (a) the positive components of the tribal culture and folk education and (b) the potentialities of linking their environmental experience to the wider and modern culture.
Out of nearly 50 tribal communities in Kerala, 30 were covered for observation and interview. The questionnaire and rating scales were answered by 242-teachers and 50 welfare officers, 50 social workers and local leaders. The method of investigation adopted was the survey in its descriptive and analytical aspects. The techniques included non-participant observation, participant observation (on a limited scale), interviews with tribals as well as social workers and various classes of educators and a documentary survey, A socioeconomic status scale, a specially prepared questionnaires and rating scales were the tools used. Secondary sources like records in government offices and schools were also analysed.
The major findings were: 1. The majority of the tribes were very backward in their socioeconomic and educational conditions. A caste- wise break-up showed that the Marati and Malayarayan had attained better positions, while the Cholanaickar, Kattunaickar and Malapandaram still live in caves. 2. The socioeconomic conditions of the tribals were still very poor. About 90 per cent families were in the lower socio-
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economic group. 3. The tribes were not fully conscious of their backwardness, exploitation, sanitary needs, economic improvement opportunities, civic rights and responsibilities. 4. The attitude of the tribal towards officers was on the whole positive. They had adjusted somewhat to the new job opportunities. 5. They still maintained some of their traditional cultural activities. 6. The tribal children who attended the ordinary schools were below average in studies and above average in sports and cultural activities. 7. Most of the educators dealing with them had an attitude of acceptance towards them. 8. Lack of accommodation, lack of travelling facilities, unsuitable location of schools, inconvenient school buildings, shortage of materials, etc. were the major difficulties faced by the teachers in tribal areas. 9. The traditional dwellings of the tribals were very poor and did not have facilities for children's study at home. Many of the houses allotted to tribals by the government were not properly built. Some of the tribals were not willing to live in tiled and whitewashed houses.
128. JOSHI,R., A Study of Factors Affecting Alienation in the Employees of Kumaun University, Ph.D. Edu., Mee. U. 1985
The objectives of the study were (i) to study the extent of alienation present in the non-teaching employees of Kumaun University, and (ii) to study how alienation of employees was related to their level of aspiration, job-satisfaction, values, intelligence, nature of job, size of family, residence either in rural area or urban, aptitude, educational background, age, income, length of the service, and sex.
The sample comprised 150 clerical staff working in different departments of Kumaun University, including both the campuses, Nainital and Almora. It included both male and female, and permanent and ad hoc employees. The alienation was measured with the help of the University Employees' Alienation Scale developed by the investigator. The test-retest reliability coefficient was 0.89. Level of aspiration was measured with the help of Level of Aspiration Scale for University Employees also developed by the investigator. The split-half reliability coefficient was 0.90. Job satisfaction was measured with the help of an Indian adaptation of Brayfield and Rothi's Index as developed by Rathor. The split-half reliability coefficient was 0.82. The Office Employees Values Scale developed by the investigator was used for measuring values. The spilt-half relia- bility coefficients ranged from 0.78 to 0.84. Cattell's Culture Fair Test of 'g' (Scale II) was used for measuring intelligence. Aptitude was measured by Clerical Speed and Accuracy Test of the DAT Battery. The data were analysed with the help of the chi-square technique.
The findings were: 1. Alienation was found in all the employees to some extent and it was roughly normally distributed. 2. Highly alienated employees possessed a high level of aspiration while less alienated employees possessed a low level of aspiration. 3. Job satisfaction of the employees was negatively related to their alienation. 4. Ethical and work values of the employees were signi- ficant factors affecting alienation while economic value was not a factor influencing alienation. 5. Aptitude was not found to be a significant factor of alienation. 6. Age was not related with alienation. 7. No significant relationship was found between educational background of the employees and their alienation. 8. Income of employees was not found to be significantly related to their alienation. 9. Length of service, nature of job, residence of the employees (rural or urban) and sex were not found to be significant factors for alienation. 10. Employees having more dependents in their families were found to be more alienated in comparison with less dependents.
*129. JUGAL, P.D., A Study of Socio-psychological Make- up of Student Leaders of Kumaun University in relation to Their Liking for Involvement in College/University Administration, Ph.D. Edu., Kum U., 1982
The objectives of the study were (i) to find out the liking for involvement of student leaders in their college or university, (ii) to find out the association of liking for involvement in college/university administration of student leaders with their sociological make-up, (iii) to explore the relationship between sociological variables and liking for involvement in college/university administration of student leaders who were differentiated on the basis of Cattell's. Four Secondary Personality Factors, viz., (i) high anxiety vs. low anxiety, (ii) introversion vs. extraversion, (iii) tender-minded emotionality vs. alert poise, (iv) subduedness vs. independence, and (iv) to study the liking for involvement of student leaders in colleges managed by university government and private bodies.
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The following non-parametric methods were used for drawing inferences : (i) The Mann Whitney U-Test, (ii) the chi-square test, (iii) the median test, (iv) point biserial coefficient of correlation. Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaires, Socio-economic Status Scale (Form A) by S.P. Kulshreshtha, Deva's Social Adjustment Inventory, Student Looking for, Involvement in College/University Administration Scale and Checklist for determining the type of management of various colleges under Kumaun University were used. The population for this study consisted of 175 subjects who were members of the executive committee of student unions during the session 1980- 81. The majority of the subjects in the sample were from governmental colleges of the Kumaun region. The purposive sampling technique was adopted.
The conclusions drawn were: 1. Socio-economic status and socio- metric status were significant determinants of a looking for involvement in college/ university administration of student leaders. 2. Social adjustment and emotional adjustment were not significant correlates of liking for involvement in college/ university administration but social maturity of leaders was significantly related with liking for involvement in college/university administration. 3. The personality traits of extraversion and alert poise were significantly related with liking for involvement in college/university administration. 4. Anxiety and independence were not related with liking for involvement in college/university administration, when socio-metric status was not considered. 5. When socio-metric status was controlled high anxiety among isolated leaders influenced their liking for involvement. 6. Introvert leaders with low SES and extravert leaders with high SES had higher liking for involvement in college/university administration. 7. Low SES leaders having introversion had higher liking for involvement than low SES leaders having extraversion personality traits. 8. Low SES leaders having introversion had higher liking for involvement than high SES introvert leaders. 9. Type of management did not have significant bearing upon looking for involvement in college/university administration of student leaders.
130. KABBUR, S., A Study of Psychological and Familial Correlates of Juvenile Delinquency in Indian Children, Ph.D., Kar. U., 1987
The objectives of the study were (i) to find out the psychological variables that correlated with juvenile delinquency, (ii) to find out the familial variables that correlated with juvenile delinquency, and (iii) to develop a method of identifying potential delinquents. The hypotheses of the study were: (1) Juvenile delinquents and juvenile non-delinquents do not differ in their measures on emotional adjustment and social adjustment. (2) Juvenile delinquents and juvenile non-delinquents do not differ in their measures on fourteen personality factors. (3) Juvenile delinquents and juvenile non- delinquents do not differ in their measures on eighteen parent-child relations.
The sample for the study involved juvenile delinquents and juvenile non-delinquents. One to one matching was done between them on the variables of sex, age, mother-tongue, educational failure, parental occupation, number of children in the family, ordinal position among siblings, income intelligence. The age range of the sample was 13 through 18 years of both sexes. The sample of 120 male juvenile delinquents was utilized from all the high school students of government senior certified schools of Karnataka State. The sample of juvenile non-delinquents was got by purposive sampling. Personal bio- data of informants were obtained through a personal bio-data form. Mental ability (nonverbal intelligence) was measured by Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. Emotional adjustment, social ad- justment, educational adjustment and total adjustment were assessed by Adjustment Inventory for School Students as standardized by A.K.P. Sinha and R.P. Singh. It was translated into Kannada by the investigator. Personality factors were measured by an Indian adaptation of Junior-Senior High School Personality Questionnaire as adapted by S.D. Kapoor, S.S. Srivastava, G.N.P. Srivastava and K.K. Mehrotra. It was translated into Kannada by the investigator. Parent-child relations were measured by an Indian adaptation of Clark's Parent-Child Relations Test by Govind Tiwari. It was translated; into Kannada by the investigator. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and differential and inter-correlational analysis. Factor analysis and discriminant function analysis were also used.
The major findings of the study were: 1. Juvenile delinquents and juvenile non-delinquents did not differ significantly in emotional adjustment, social adjustment, educational adjustment, and total adjustment. 2. Juvenile delinquents and juvenile non-delinquents differed significantly in personality factors-Factor 'B' (less intelligent-more intelligent), Factor 'D' (phlegmatic-excitable), Factor 'Q' (undisciplined,
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self conflict-controlled), and Factor 'I' (tough minded tender minded). 3. Juvenile delinquents and juvenile non-delinquents differed significantly in the following parent-child relations: Father's aggression towards subject, subject's aggression towards father, mother's aggression towards father, father's aggression towards mother, mother's competence, father's competence, father's affection, father's identification, mother's denial, and father's denial. 4. The juvenile delinquents were less intelligent and had less ability to handle abstract problems. 5. They were more prone to jealousy, more exitable than normal children. 6. They demanded attention and showed nervousness. 7. They were less controlled, tender-minded, sensitive, dependent and over-protected.
131. KALA, P.S., Personality Development and Adjustment of Pre-adolescent Children born to Working and Non- working Women from Higher SocioEconomic Families, Research Centre for Women's Studies, SNDT U., 1986
The major objectives of the study were (i) to trace personality development of pre-adolescent children with reference to locus of control, (ii) to compare the personality adjustment of pre-adolsecent children of working and non-working women from higher socioeconomic families, (iii) to investigate the interaction effect of working and non-working status of mothers and their relationship with children's personality adjustment, and (iv) to investigate the interaction effects of working and non-working status of mothers and their relationship with a child's father as a factor significant in children's personality adjustment.
A quasi-experimental design was used in the study. The two groups were children of working and- nonworking mothers. The sample consisted of 60 children 30 from each groups of mothers. There were an equal number of boys and girls. They were drawn from families of higher socio-economic status. The tools used were an Indian adaptation of Aowickistrickland's Locus of Control Scale by Pental, the Pre-adolescent Adjustment Scale '(PASS) by Pareek and others, the Parent-Child Relationship Scale constructed by the author, the Parent- Parent Relationship Scale also by the author, the SES Inventory of Jogawar, and a Personal Life Sheet for Mothers specially prepared for the project. Descriptive statistics and analysis of variance were used for data analysis and drawing conclusions.
The major findings were: 1. There was no difference between the perceived parent-child relationship between the two groups. 2. The two groups of working and non-working mothers did not differ in perceived parent-parent relationship. 3. The girls from the working group and boys from the non-working group showed better adjustment with peers. 4. There was no significant difference between the general adjustment of children of working and non-working mothers. However, the girls from the working group were better adjusted than those from the non- working group. On the other hand, boys from the non-working group were better adjusted than boys from the working group. 5. The boys from the non-working group were better adjusted to teachers than those of the working group. The girls from both the groups did not differ in adjustment to teachers. 6. As far as general adjustment was concerned, children from both the groups, and specially the girls from the working mothers group were better adjusted. 7. The girls from the working group were better adjusted at home than those from the non- working group. The boys from the two groups did not differ significantly in home adjustment. 8. The two groups of children did not differ in the locus of control.
132. KALIA, P., A Socio-Psychological Study of Student Activists, Ph.D. Psy., Pan. U., 1986
The objectives of the study were (i) to analyse the personality make- up of activist and non-activist students, (ii) to analyse the socio-psychological background factors that contributed to activist leanings, (iii) to compare the social set-up, family ideology of activists and non-activist students, and (iv) to determine the factorial structure underlying activism and to compare this factor structure with that of non-activists.
The sample of the study consisted of 200 students. One hundred activists selected on the basis of the snowball technique formed the first group. Following the same method, 100 non-activists were selected for the second group. The sample students were selected from four universities, viz., Punjab, Panjabi, Kurukshetra and Himachal Pradesh, their age ranging from 18 to 26 years. The students were administered the following tools: (i) The Sinha Action Scale (1971) which provided five alternatives for various problematic situations; (ii) the Sinha University. Environment Scale (1971) which sought students' views and reactions about campus climate. The scale had items pertaining
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to five factors-normlessness, absence of confirmity, need for nurturance, adoption of unfair means, and morality, (iii) the Tomeh Alienation Scale (1974) which measured four aspects, viz., powerlessness, normlessness, meaninglessness, and social isolation; (iv) the Cattell 16 PF Questionnaire; (v) the Rasmussen Egoidentity Scale (1964) which had six factors, namely, basic trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. guilt, ego identity vs. identity confusion, intimacy vs. isolation; (vi) the Singh SocioEconomic Status Stale (1974); (vii) the Levinsion Tradi- tional Family Ideology Scale (1954), (viii) the Murthy Paranoia Scale (1965); (ix) the Murthy Depression Scale; Hysteria Scale; (x) the Murthy Anxiety Scale; (xi) the Murthy Hysteria Scale; (xii) the Murthy Psychopathic Deviation Scale and (xiii) the Murthy Repressor- Sensitizer Scale.
Major findings of the study were: 1. The activists were found to be more outgoing, participating, cheerful, happy-go-lucky, and enthusiastic as compared to the non-activists. 2. No significant difference between the two groups was found in intelligence. 3. Non- activists were found to be higher on self-concept, control and ego- identity than activists. 4. The non-activists were higher on ego- identity as compared to the activists 5. The activists were high on educational environment alienation and alienation with general socio- culture. They were significantly different from non-activists. 6. The parents of activists were less conventional, less authoritarian, more democratic, with less emphasis on strict discipline and impulse control. 7. The socioeconomic status of activist students was of middle and above middle class. 8. The activist students were signifi- cantly different from. non-activists in personality deviation. They had higher mean scores on schizophrenia, paranoia and hysteria. On mania, depression, and psychopathic deviations also their scores were higher. 9. The factors extracted on the activists group were: Ego- recognition, Sociability, Extroversion, Educational Environmental Alienation, and Maturity. 10. The factors of non-activists were: Ego Identity, Alienation and Change, Educational Environment, Alienation vs. Ego Strength, Intellectual, Moral Personality Factors, Enthusiastic Conscientiousness and Family Idealogy vs. Detachment.
133. KALPANARAO, V., Educational Pursuit, Caste Background and Psychological Characteristics Students: A Comparative Study, Ph.D. Psy., And. U., 1984
The objective of the study was to understand the patterms of educational pursuits and psychological characteristics of students in relation to their caste background.
The sample of the study consisted of 500 students enrolled in educational programmes like polytechnic, general nursing law, engineering, professional nursing, medicine (graduation and postgraduation). They belonged to various castes like Brahmin, Kshatriya, Kamma, Reddy, Rajaka, Golla, Mala and Madiga. The sample was classified into three educational groups and four caste groups. The three educational groups were vocational, professional, and academic. The four caste groups were upper caste, intermediate caste, backward caste, and scheduled caste. The subjects were administered the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test (1971), the Herman Prestatic-Motivatic Test (1970) to measure achievement motivation, the Harigopal Self-Ideal Disparity Test (1975), and the Eysenck Personality Inventory (1964) to measure extraversion and neuroticism.
The findings of the study were: 1. The educational pursuits of the students depended on their caste background. The probability of students belonging to upper, intermediate and backward castes pursuing professional courses was higher than in the case of students of scheduled caste. Conversely, the probability of scheduled caste students pursuing vocational courses was the highest. 2. Individuals with different caste background differed in their measured intelligence. These differences were more apparent in scheduled caste groups than among upper caste, intermediate caste and backward class groups. 3. The students with different caste backgrounds did not show any significant differences with regard to personality traits of achievement motivation, self-ideal disparity, extraversion and neuroticism. 4. The students pursuing vocational, professional and academic courses differed significantly on their psychological characteristics of intelligence, achievement motivation, self-ideal disparity and neuroticism. No significant differences were observed with regard to their personality dimension of extraversion. 5. There was no interaction effect of caste background, and educational pursuits of individuals on their measured psychological characteristics. 6. The differences in the levels of intelligence between students of different caste backgrounds were considerably seen An the professional and academic courses, rather than the vocational courses. 7. Personality traits of achievement motivation and self- ideal disparity, which differed significantly among students with different educational pursuits, were not attributed to the differences in the caste backgrounds. 8. More of
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neuroticism was apparent among the students with scheduled caste background pursuing vocational courses than among others.
134. KAPUR, M., The Moral Education of Primary School Children: A Sociological Perspective, Ph.D. Soc., Del. U., 1986
The objectives of the study were (i) to discover the content of moral education or the normative interpretations internalized by children and examine their social interactional context, (ii) to examine the moral education of the primary school children within the social in- teractional context, (iii) to examine the processes of transmission and internalization of normative interpretations, and (iv) to examine the relationship of formal education and the culture of children.
The methodology of research adopted in the study was descriptive. A village in the vicinity of Delhi was selected. The school, socialization functions like marriage, birth, death and festivals, children and their homes formed the sample of the study. The data for the study were collected with the help of observation, Piagetian interviews on the acquisition of moral judgement by children, participant observation, children's record in the school registers, diaries kept by the teachers, formalized curriculum in the shape of books, etc. The data were analysed and interpreted in normative social interaction settings.
The findings of the study were: 1. Obedience, precedence to elders, Hindu religious values relating to Karma and the redemption of sins, sexual division of labour, and sibling loyalty were the themes of normative interpretation. 2. In exploring children's primary socia- lization, these were found transmitted and internalized within the social interactional contexts of the home. 3. Obedience and precedence to elders were values that were communicated via processes of control and disciplining of children by adults. 4. Obedience and precedence to elders were also values extolled in folk-tales, demonstrated in adults' behaviour and in the observance of rituals and festivals. 5. The learning of religious belief and practice consisted of adult demonstration of the correct observance of certain events. 6. Normative interpretations relating to the sexual division of labour were embedded in the processes of learnIng certain skills as well as not learning others. 7. There was the internalization by children of values relating to the superiority of males. 8. There were found several kinship groupings as the home, the village, the gotra, biradari and rishtedar. 9. These groups did not play an equal and explicit part in the lives of children and they did not know the significance of biradari and rishtedar. 10. There were groupings that extended far beyond the boundaries of the village and were not immediately relevant groups of cooperation for the children. 11. The behaviour within the caste, and between members of the same generation, followed same pattern as with members of the family. 12. Kinship loyalty decreased as it moved out of the primary unit of the ghar. 13. Loyalty to kin was an explicitly stated value while its opposite was said to bring misfortune. 14. The special divisions of the village were based on caste and its distinctions served to separate children into distinct groups. 15. High caste children were forbidden and discouraged from associating with children of the lower castes. 16. Characteristics of lower castes were spoken of in a derogatory way by the upper and middle castes. 17. School or educational knowledge which constituted secondary socialization for the children of the village was seen to partake of processes of formalized instruction. 18. Examination of processes of transmission and internalization of normative interpretation had been understood to consist of social interactional processes of primary and secondary socialization, or formal education. 19. The exercise of adult control over children was an integral part of the social interaction within the school and the means by which order was maintained. 20. Teaching aids, such as, wall posters and textbooks overtly stated this to be normative interpretation of significance. 21. Hindu religious values were a part of the children's primary socialization in their homes and village. 22. Textbooks were a major repository of Hindu religious value. 23. Sexual segregation and values were overtly reaffirmed in secondary socialization. 24. Interaction between sexes was completely excluded in secondary socialization. 25. The science curriculum reasserted the sexual division of labour, as the girls learnt home science, while boys learnt science. 26. The process of primary and secondary socialization, which corresponded to home and school respectively, were quite distinct. 27. The values of nationalism, secularism and democracy did not deny the values of primary socia- lization and also were more significant both in the lives of children in their homes and in the school.
135. KATHURIA, P.R., Scholastic Achievement Vocational Interests as related to Prolonged Deprivation, Ph.D. Psy., RSU, 1982
The objectives of the enquiry were (i) to study the rela-
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tionship between ten fields of vocational interests (VI) and 15 components of prolonged derivation (PD), (ii) to study the relationship between scholastic achievement and global prolonged deprivation as well as between scholastic achievement and various components of prolonged deprivation, (iii) to study the relative effect of prolonged deprivation on scholastic achievement and vocational interest, and (iv) to study the sex and grade difference in scholastic achievement and vocational interest under conditions of prolonged deprivation and non-deprivation.
The sample of the study consisted of 143 students of grades IX and X, identified as prolonged deprived (N = 301) and non-deprived (N = 112), from the student population of the urban higher secondary schools of Bhilai and Raipur, using the Prolonged Deprivation Scale by Tripathi and Misra. Data related to the vocational interests of the students were collected by employing the Chatterji's Non-verbal Preference Record Form 962, and the scholastic achievement of students was measured by their average scores on one external and two consecutive internal examinations. The statistical techniques employed were the measures of central tendency, t-test, Pearson's product-moment coefficient of correlation and ANOVA.
The findings of the study were: 1. There existed a negative and non-significant relationship between scholastic achievement and global prolonged deprivation, scholastic achievement and different areas of prolonged deprivation and scholastic achievement and different components of prolonged deprivation. 2. The relationship between prolonged deprivation and global vocational interests and prolonged deprivation and various fields of vocational interest was not found to be significant. 3. A significantly negative relationship was observed between PD in housing conditions and household VI; PD in home environment and household activities VI; PD in home environment and fine arts VI; PD in home environment and household activities VI; PD in home environment and agriculture, VI; PD in economic sufficiency and household activities VI; PD in food deprivation and medical activities VI; PD in food deprivation and literary work VI; deprivation in travel and recreation and fine arts VI; deprivation in travel and recreation and interest in household activities VI; whereas, this relationship was positive and significant between PD in clothing and interest in household activities; deprivation in formal education experience and interest in household activities, deprivation in childhood and interest in house-hold activities, and deprivation in childhood experience and interest in the fine arts. The relationship between the rest of the components of prolonged deprivation and fields of vocational interest was not found to be significant. (iv) There existed no real sex difference in the scholastic achievement of boys and girls. (v) Significant sex differences were found in the vocational interests of prolonged deprived boys and girls. (vi) Non- deprived students scored significantly higher in scholastic achievement as compared to prolonged-deprived students. (vii) Prolonged-deprived and non-deprived students differed significantly with respect to their vocational interests.
136. KHATUN, R., Education and Modernization (A Comparative Study of Two Villages of Bangladesh), Ph.D. Soc., Pan. U., 1986
The objectives of the study were (i) to present the data on the spread and expansion of education in Bangladesh, (ii) to examine the role of education as an agent of modernization, (iii) to explore the influence of education on the rural social structure, that is, on the institu- tions, groups, forms of organization, social stratification, social relationships and behaviour patterns, and (iv) to examine the effect of education on psycho-social modernity.
A descriptive and comparative method was adopted to investigate and compare the differences between two villages of Bangladesh. Educated and uneducated households, heads of villages and also school- going and non-school-going adolescents (age group, 13-18 years) of the villages were taken in the sample. In this way, 300 households and their heads from one village and 127 households and their heads from another village formed the sample of study. They included 150 educated and 150 uneducated people and 100 students and 50 non-school- going adolescents. To collect the data, the following tools were used: (i) the Household Census Schedule (for comparing social structural elements), (ii) an interview schedule (for comparing educated and uneducated household heads), (iii) an interview schedule (for comparing school-going and non-school-going adolescents), and (iv) The Attitudinal Modernity Scale developed by Sharma (1979) used to measure the values, attitudes and perceptions of school-going and non-school-going respondents. Besides, the above mentioned tools, secondary sources were used for collecting required information. The collected data were
RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 163
analysed with the help of chi-square and analysis of variance.
The findings of the study were: 1. Education affected modernity. The differences were found to be statistically significant in the case of attitudes, beliefs and behaviour pattern of educated people as compared with those of uneducated people. 2. The school-going respondents were found significantly more modern than the nonschool- going respondents in the rural setting. 3. The opinion on the choice of family type between educated and uneducated respondents showed no association with modernity in the sample. 4. High association was noticed between the level of education and the family type of the respondents. 5. The lower the level of education, the higher the trend towards a joint-family system. 6. In both the villages, a larger percentage of uneducated people held a favourable opinion towards a high fertility rate. 7. Educated people held a more modem outlook than the uneducated on the aspect of fertility. 8. Education up to secondary stage significantly influenced student modernity. 9. Extra- curricular activities, especially the academic among them (debates and declamation contests) and the cultural (music and dramatics) catego- ries had a potential for inculcating higher levels of modernity among the students. 10. Education seemed to have greater effect on universalistic achievement and scientific orientation. 11. Education was found less conducive to the growth of secular and civic orientations. 12. The educational variables were found more powerful for facilitation of modernity. 13. The familial variables were found to be subordinate to the education variables, as they prepared the ground for the students' entry into the school.
137. KOTHARI, S., A Study of the Development of Moral Concepts among First Generation Learners and Second Generation Learners in Indore, Ph.D. Psy., DAVV, 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to inquire into the level of development of the selected moral concepts of VII grade children belonging to the first generation of learners (FGL) and the second generation of learners (SGL), (ii) to find out the extent of the relationship between the existing moral concepts of children and their interpersonal relationship with parents, teachers and peers, and (iii) to study the impact of the specially developed instructional materials vis-a-vis the traditional method of teaching upon the development of selected moral concepts of VII grade children who are first generation school learners and second generation school learners. The hypotheses were: (1) The status positions of the different moral concepts selected for the study do not differ significantly between first generation school learners and second generation school learners of the VII grade. (2) The variable of mother's academic qualifications does not have any relationship with the existing moral concepts of the children of grade VII. (3) The variable of father's academic qualifications does not have any relationship with the existing moral concepts of children of grade VII. (4)The variable of a child's in- terpersonal relationship with his/her parents does not have any relationship with the existing moral concepts of the children of grade VII. (5) The variable of a child's interpersonal relationship with his/her teachers does not have any relationship with the existing moral concepts of the students of grade VII. (6) The variable of a child's interpersonal relationship with his/her peers does not nave any relationship with the existing moral concepts of children of grade VII. (7) Both the traditional method of teaching and treatment given in the form of the moral concepts instructional materials will be equally effective in developing moral concepts among first generation school learners and the second generation school learners of grade VII. (8) The moral concepts instructional materials will develop moral concepts equally well among first generation learners and second generation learners of grade VII.
For the purpose of standardizing the Moral Concept Development 'rest (MCDT), 300 students (121 boys and 179 girls) of grade VII were selected from local schools. For reliability and validity study a sample of 119 students (50 boys and 69 girls) were selected. To measure the base line data, a sample of 1249 students (833 boys and 416 girls) from 33 schools was used. For developing instructional materials, a sample of 60 students (17 boys and 43 girls) was used. For testing the efficiency of instructional materials, a sample of 88 students was used. The above samples consisted of students belonging to both first generation learners and the second generation learners of both sexes. The formats of instructional materials were stories, poems. proverbs, essays, role playing, pictures and discussions. Joshi's Non-Verbal Group Test of General Mental Ability was used for measuring intelligence. The test-retest reliability ranged from 0.9 10 to 0.917 and the split-half reliability ranged from 0.97 to 0.99.The factorial validity of the test ranged from 0.69 to 0.74. SES was measured With the help of Kapoor's Socio-Economic Status
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Scale Questionnaire. The test-retest coefficient of reliability was 0.89. The concurrent validity of this scale was established by testing identifiable groups. The Moral Concept Development Test was used to measure moral concepts. The test-retest reliability coefficient was 0.91. The data were analysed by using chi-square, analysis of variance and analysis of covariance,
The findings were: 1. The Parents' educational level was significantly related with the development of moral concepts of their children. 2. The mother's academic qualifications had a significant impact on the existing moral concepts of her child. 3. The father's academic qualifications had a significant impact on the existing moral concepts of his child. 4. Better interpersonal relationship with the parents encouraged the development of moral concepts among their children. 5. Better interpersonal relationship with teachers encouraged the development of moral concepts among their students. 6. Better interpersonal relationship with peers helped formation of the moral concepts among students. 7. Treatment given in the form of instructional materials was found to be more effective in developing the selected moral concepts among the first generation learners than among the second generation learners, 8. Treatment in the form of instructional materials was found to be superior to the traditional method of teaching in developing the selected moral concepts among first generation learners and second generation learners.
The implications are: (1) The adult education programme should be given high priority in the educational plan of the country. (2) The curriculum for adults should have more inputs of history, culture, social values and modem technology, both to arouse interest in education and to acquaint them with the cultural heritage of the society out of which moral concepts evolve. (3) Parents should provide a supportive and encouraging environment to their children. (4) A parent-teacher association should be formed in each school. (5) In- structional material should be developed in respect of various moral concepts. (6) Textbook writers should be encouraged to write books which would help in the development of moral concepts.
*138. KRISHNAMOORTHI, S., English Education and its Impact on Society in Bombay (1854-1905), Ph.D. Hist., Bom. U., 1987
The main objectives of the research were (i) to provide a historical account of the growth of western education, with special reference to the policies formulated by the Government of India during the period 1854-1905, and (ii) to study the development of English education and its impact on the society in Bombay. The hypotheses of the study were: (1) English education has played a very important role in the process of social change in Bombay. (2) It has brought about only social change but also political, economic and cultural changes in the society. (3) Changes brought about by education were permanent and transcendent in nature.
The study employed a purely historical approach. The data were collected through an extensive and intensive use of unpublished and published archival documents from (i) the National Archives of India, New Delhi, (ii) the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi, (iii) the Maharashtra State Archives, and (iv) some private papers and other documents deposited in the Bombay University Library and Central Library, Bombay. A large number of books written by contemporary and later English as well as Indian authors were also used.
The major Findings and conclusions of the study were: 1. A westernized intelligentsia had emerged among the Indians by the sixties of the 19th century and leaders of this class became the torch bearers of new, modem India. 2. The attention of English-educated In- dians was first drawn to the urgent necessity of reforms for the emancipation of women. Reaching education to women, abolition of sati, legalizing widow remarriages etc. were no mean feats achieved by reformers who were the receivers of modem education. 3. Western educa- tion which was dissociated from the caste hierarchy led to a kind of horizontal and vertical social mobility which did not exist before. 4. The British legal system which gave equality of rights to all led to social protest movements like the Satya Shodhak movement against Brahmin domination and also other non-Brahmin movements in Maharashtra. 5. Modem education was responsible for the emerging of a middle class in the society. 6. The Indian National Congress was a direct product of Indian university life. Its delegates were all English-educated men who drew their ideas from the West. 7. English education had its impact on the culture of the people too. Considerable changes had taken place in the ways of life of the educated Indians. A sharp rise in the marriage age of girls because of higher education was an important cultural change. Higher education changed the outlook of urban girls and this made them less particular about traditional and cultural rules and rituals.
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139. KRISHNAN, R., Personality Correlates of Religious Beliefs and Materialism-Spiritualism Orientations of Students of Kerala, Ph.D. Psy., Ker. U., 1981
The main objectives of the study were (i) to find out the nature and extent of religious beliefs and practices among school and college students, (ii) to measure the extent of religiosity and spiritual orientation of the students, and (iii) to find-out the extent of relationship between personality and other variables like sex, socio- economic status, religious beliefs and behaviours. The hypotheses of the study were: (1) Women are more religious and spiritualistic than men. (2) Personality variables like maladjustment, gregariousness and thoughtfulness and intelligence are related to religiosity, spiritualism and religious beliefs and practices. (3) Religiosity and spiritualism as aspects of personality are related to specific religious beliefs and practices. (4) Personal and social variables such as caste, parental education and occupation, socio-economic status, goals and aspirations in life of students, are related to religiosity and spiritualism.
The total sample of 1205 students was made up of 503 students from the school-final class and 702 students from the first two years of college. The sample was stratified further on the basis of residence, sex, and type of management of school. The tests used for data collection were the Mathew Test of Mental Abilities, Materialism- Spiritualism Scale, and Temperament Scale to measure maladjustment, gregariousness and thoughtfulness. The three tests were prepared and standardized by Mathew in 1973 and their reliability and validity were also established. The Religiosity Scale prepared by the investigator for the study was also standardized and its reliability and validity computed. A questionnaire was also prepared to obtain information about the respondents and also to survey their religious behaviour. The data obtained were analysed by calculating percentages between groups and comparing them, using the t-test and chi-square test, computing the Pearson product-moment correlation to measure the re- lationship between relevant variables. The analysis of variance technique was used to rind the extent of relationship between specific questionnaire items and personality.
The major findings were: 1. A high percentage of students believed in God (90 per cent) and they also practised religion (70 per cent). 2. Female students were more religious and spiritual and they also practised religion more than males. 3. Personality variables were related to religiosity, spiritualism and specific beliefs and practices associated with religion. 4. The correlations between intelligence and religiosity and spiritualism were found to be negative. 5. Low positive relationships were noted between intelligence, maladjustment, gregariousness and religious behaviour considered as a whole. 6. Religiosity, spiritualism and specific beliefs and practices associated with religion, showed some degree of positive associations with each other, indicating consistency in this area of behaviour. 7. Of the personal and social variables studied, parental education, occupation and economic status were found to be negatively related to religiosity and spiritualism.
*140. KULKARNI, V.N., A Critical Study of the Edu- cational Problems of the Children of Vidi Kamager Mahila in Solapur Corporation Area, Ph.D. Edu., Shi. U., 1986
The main objectives of the study were (i) to study economic, social and family conditions of the Vidi Kamgar Mahila (VKM), i.e. women vidi workers, (ii) to find out the language difficulties of the children of the VKM who were taught in a medium of instruction other than their mother-tongue, and (iii) to suggest measures for improvement of the economic, social and familial conditions of VKM and ways for overcoming the educational difficulties faced by their children.
A stratified random sample of 1050 VKM (5 per cent) was selected for study. It comprised 1400 VKM from a very low socioeconomic stratum and 50 VKM from a slightly better-off socioeconomic stratum. Apart from this, two separate stratified samples of 200 children of VKM were taken. The first sample comprised 150 school-going boys and 50 school-going girls. The other sample consisted of 100 boys and 100 girls who were out of the stream of formal schooling. The other respondents included in the study were (i) 70 teachers teaching children of VKM, (ii) 20 vidi factory owners,(iii) five trade union leaders, and (iv) 20 social workers and religious leaders. The main tool of data collection was a structured interview schedule. The interview schedule prepared for the VKM included nearly 90 items on personal information and economic, social, familial and linguistic factors related to the educational problems of the children. There were two separate interview schedules for children, one for school- going children and another for children not attending schools.
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The former interview schedule included 13 items related to study habits, medium of instruction, liking and disliking of school, the latter schedule comprised eight items on reasons for not attending school and the existing conditions of the children. The items in the interview schedule for teachers were related to the educational problems of the children of VKM and their academic progress and development. There were separate interview schedules for the other respondents too.
The major findings of the study were: 1. The majority of VKM were illiterate and had very poor economic conditions. 2. The majority of them did not send their children to school. 3. The percentage (5 per cent) of girls going to school was low. 4. The main reason for not sending children to school was economic. The children were treated as earning hands. 5. The VKM preferred to spend money on entertainment, religious functions, clothing and other habits rather than on education of their children. 6. Many children left their homes because of the bad atmosphere in their family. The male members indulged in vice, bad conduct, gambling, drinking, etc. 7. A sizable portion (30 per cent) of the VKM had no faith in formal schooling and paid almost no attention to the progress of their children in schools. 8. The medium of instruction adopted (Marathi) was one of the main reasons for the poor educational progress of the children. It was different from their own mother-tongue, either Telugu or Urdu.
141. KUMAR, P., Personality Study of Student Leadership, Ph. D. Psy., All. U., 1964 ship, Ph.D. Psy., All. U., 1964
The enquiry aimed at studying certain personality variables associated with student leadership. It was hypothesized that certain personality variables would be found significantly needed for the enactment of a leadership role in the situation under study; and that the perceptions of the two groups-the leader and non-leader, would show an agreement as to the ideal and the perceived leadership qualities. It was also hypothesized that certain personal factors would show a significant relationship with the leadership.
The study was conducted on a sample of 50 student leaders and 50 non-leaders. Sinha's.W.A. Self-analysis Form, Eysenck's Short Questionnaire, the Ascendence-Submission Study, the Revised Adjustment Inventory, the Test for Rigidity and Ambiguity Tolerance, and the Allport, Vernon Value Scale were used for collecting data. Chi- square, critical ratio and correlation techniques were used for analysing the data.
The findings were: 1. Age, caste and length of stay in the university were found significantly related to student leadership. 2. The leaders tended to be more anxious and more dominating than the non-leaders. 3. Extroversion, neuroticism, adjustment, rigidity and ambiguity-tolerance failed to give any relationship. 4. Leaders were higher on social and economic values, and lower on theoretical and religious values. Aesthetic and political values failed to discriminate significantly between the leaders and the non-leaders. 5. Leadership was ideally imaged as responsible, hard-working, social, honest and helping. But the actually perceived leadership image deviated greatly from the ideal. It was perceived as ambitious, emotional, social, dominating and tactful. 6. The intra-group analysis of the ideal and perceived leadership images failed to give a positively significant relationship. There was agreement that the student leaders did not possess qualities ideally required for the fulfilment of a leadership role in the given situation.
142. MAJUMDAR, P.K. and CHAUDHARI, B., Reasons for the Disparity in Sex-ratio in Primary Education Level: A Sociological Analysis, Kal. U., 1978 (ICSSR financed)
The objective of the study was to bring to the surface the socioeconomic factors that were likely to play important roles in the disparity of sex-ratio in primary education.
The study was conducted in 16 villages, four each from four districts of West Bengal, viz. Cooch-Behar, Maldah, Birbhum and Purulia, which were among the educationally backward districts having large disparity in sex-ratio in education. In selecting the villages three criteria had been kept in view-the total number of villages should be around 150, the villages should be progressively distant from the urban centres and they should be of multicaste composition. The study was geared on descriptive lines with two control groups: C1, consisting of families that encouraged education of children of either sex in the school-going age group; C2, consisting of families that had children of either sex in the school-going age group but encouraged neither to go to school; and an experimental group, E, consisting of families that had children of either sex in the school-going age-group but sent only boys to school. Out of 2067 families, 697 (264 for C1, 243 for C2, and 190 for
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the E group) were studied. The research tools used were: (i) a village schedule to collect data on population composition and changes, facilities for transportation, school and other facilities, (ii) a census schedule to get information on demographic characteristics, social environment, education, occupation, income, indebtedness, migration history, urban contact, etc. of each family unit, (iii) an interview guide which had two parts; the first was used to collect relevant data from the head of the family, the second was meant for interviewing the wife of the head/senior female member of the family. The data obtained were checked for errors and omissions and were coded and tabulated for analysis.
The major findings were: 1. The sex-composition of the population was 524:476. The sex-ratio was low for all age-groups except 6-10 where boys and girls were in equal number; it was lowest in the 11-17 age group. 2. The total population was divided in the ratio 92:8 be- tween the only two religious groups, Hindus and Muslims. Both E and C2 had slightly higher number of Muslims. 3. The C1, group had a significantly higher percentage of clean and high-caste people, C2, clean and tribals. 4. Over 86 per cent of the families were either nuclear or nuclear with additionals. The C1, group had more extended families vis-a-vis the C2 and E groups. 5. The C1, group showed an upward trend in occupational mobility. The C2 group had the largest number of landless labourers, viz. 58 per cent of the total work force. 6. Child labour was very extensive both in the C2 and E groups. 7. The average net monthly income of a family was, C1, Rs 3 50, E-Rs. 150 and C2-Rs. 110. 8. In each of the studied villages there was a primary school, but none had middle or high schools. 9. Whereas 87.9 per cent of the heads of families in the last generation were illiterate, 49.8 per cent of the same in the present generation were illiterate. The C1 group had taken the maximum benefit of the spread of educational facilities in recent times. In the C2 group, 73.3 per cent were still illiterate (C1-18.6 percent illiterate). 10. Seventy-one per cent of females were illiterate against 50.6 per cent of males. Only 1.9 per cent of females and 8.6 per cent of males had school-leaving or higher education. In the C1, group, only 22.5 per cent of males were illiterate as against 40.2 per cent in the E group and 85.2 per cent in C2 group, the corresponding figures for females being 47.0 per cent, 91.4 per cent and 96.1 per cent respectively. 11. Over 30 per cent of rural families had no direct contact with urban centres. Over 50 per cent of C2 families fell in this category. 12. Females were still considered no match for males. A sizable population was still ignorant of the constitutional provisions of equal rights for men and women. 13. The male respondents were in favour of restriction on the movement of girls. 14. Most villagers had only a modest target for the education of their sons. Boys were given preferential treatment in matters of education. 15. One important factor responsible for the low representation of boys and girls in schools was the non-encouraging atmosphere prevailing in the villages. The intimate environment of C1, families seemed to en- courage, more than in the case of the other two groups, the education of children. 16. Girls, even 6-7 years of age, were deprived of education because they were entrusted with the care of their younger brothers and sisters, besides helping their mothers in many other odd jobs. Extreme financial handicaps were an impediment to the sending of girls to school. 17. The villagers were apprehensive that, with education, a girl's marriage would become costlier. They doubted if the quality of education they could afford for their children would be of much help in improving their lot. They did not want their girls to enter into role-conflict, and rifts with males. 18. An overwhelming majority of the respondents were still of the view that, for girls, home was the best place. 19. Women's perception of their own status and role did not differ significantly. A large majority of them regarded men superior in almost all aspects. 20. Over 95 per cent of the housewives were illiterate.
143. MALIKA, K.T., Analysis of Student Indiscipline in Indian Higher Education with special reference to the Problem as it Exists in Tamil Nadu, Ph.D. Edu., Madras U., 1981
The main objective of the study was to analyse student indiscipline in Indian higher education with special reference to the problem as it existed in Tamil Nadu. The factors associated with indiscipline were also identified.
In this status survey study, variables that were determinants of student indiscipline were identified: attitude to activism, proneness to political activism, academic moral, trust orientation, pressure due to socio-psychological problems, perception of teacher effectiveness, attitude to specific behaviour problems of students, perception of the legitimacy of the need to act and perceived student norms. Ten tools were evolved to measure these variates and the required data were col- lected from 999 students selected from the colleges and university departments adopting the multiple random
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sampling technique. Apart from measures of central tendency and variability, 'r', chi-square t, and multiple R were computed for hypothesis testing and data description.
The main findings were: 1. About fifty per cent of the students had clashed with the authorities some time or other. 2. Thirty-four per cent had shown their papers for others to copy in the examination. 3. Twenty-five per cent had travelled without tickets in trains. 4. The low-morale group had higher academic meaninglessness, poorer sense or participation. 5. Students' academic morale was positively correlated with their perception of academic meaningfulness, adequacy of teaching/ learning facilities and the adequacy of teacher-taught relations. 6. Trust in student leaders was higher than trust in teachers and authority. 7. Student indiscipline was mainly due to real or imaginary disregard of student status, opposition to disciplinary actions against students, student group-rivalry, involvement in teach- ers' problems, students' efforts to promote their interest and benefits and sympathy with striking students. 8. Men students had more favourable attitudes towards collective actions than women students and less favourable attitudes toward scholarship and authority. 9. Professional college students saw more meaningfulness in the course of study, had better sense of participation and higher academic morale than non-professional college students. 10. Professional college students were less prone to political activism and experienced less pressures due to socio-psychological problems but had less trust in authority and teachers and less favourable perception of teacher- effectiveness. 11. Undergraduate students in humanities were more indisciplined than science and commerce students. 12. Students with college-educated parents had more favourable attitudes towards activism, rights and privileges and less favourable attitudes to order and authority than students with high-school or primary-school education parents. 13. Scholarship holders were more prone to political activism and were more indisciplined than others. 14. Stu- dents' personal norms correlated significantly with student indiscipline.
The implications of the study are: (1) Educational innovations should be introduced in such a way that students can perceive the good in them. (2) Students' academic morale, trust in teachers, and future expectations should be raised by improving their perception of teacher-effectiveness and the meaningfulness of the course of study and increasing their sense of participation in academic programmes. (3) Unplanned admissions in liberal arts and science colleges should be discouraged.
144. MANJU KUMARI, A Sociological Study of the Inmates of Children's Correctional Institutions, Ph.D. Soc., BHU, 1985
This study in the area of juvenile delinquency was undertaken (i) to find out the factors responsible for juvenile delinquency and their analysis, (ii) to evaluate the correctional measures followed in the correctional institutions, (ii) to study the adjustment of the delinquents to institutional life, and (iv) to offer suggestions regarding policies and programmes being followed in correctional institutions to make them more effective so that the continuous increase in the incidence of juvenile delinquency may be checked. Towards achieving these objectives the following research questions were set up: (1) Are social and economic background responsible for a child's tending towards delinquency? (2) Is family background responsible for a child's tending towards delinquency? (3) Does the child's peer group motivate a child to resort to delinquency, and, if so, to what extent are the school conditions supportive of his tendency? (4) Do the neighbourhood children and means of entertain- ment, especially cinema, influence a child in becoming delinquent? (5) Are the programmes and services in the correctional institutions satisfactory for reforming delinquents? Are some changes in them necessary? (6) How does a child adjust in these institutions and at what stage does this adjustment becomes maladjustment?
The study was undertaken in two correctional homes situated in Varanasi city. Out of 293 children in these two institutions, 200 were selected for the study. A number of hypotheses pertaining to the educational level, family type, family economic status, environment, company, neighbourhood, entertainment and programmes were set up. For collecting the survey data, an interview schedule was developed. These data were supplemented by data gathered from the annual reports of the institutions, by observation and from institution officials. The data analysis was presented in terms of percentages.
The findings were: (1) The majority of the delinquents were adolescents. 2. More delinquency cases came from the uneducated class. 3. More delinquents were from the lower castes. 4. More delinquents were from unitary families. 5. More delinquents were from
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urban areas. 6. More delinquents were from lower socioeconomic classes. 7. Many delinquents were from unsatisfactory environments, from broken families, or families where there was deprivation from parental love, or where the parents were at loggerheads. 8. Many were drawn to the path of delinquency by bad company. 9. Children turned to delinquency due to unsatisfactory school conditions, uninteresting curriculum and unsatisfactory provision for sports and games, as well as due to teachers' behaviour. Many schools were in slums and narrow lanes. The neighbourhoods were also polluted with tea shops, liquor shops and gambling dens driving the children to indulge in juvenile offences. 10. Lack of proper opportunities for healthy entertainment was also responsible for juvenile offences. 11. The correctional institutions were found to be wanting in every respect. Due to the behaviour of officials and in conditions prevailing there the inmates slowly became more and more maladjusted. Thus they were not in a position to achieve the objectives for which they existed.
Some implications are: (1) The teachers should visit the parents so as to thwart the tendency to drift towards delinquency. Parent- teacher associations should hold meetings regularly. (2) The school atmosphere should be made interesting, and scientific methods should be adopted in all school programmes. (3) Free education facilities should be extended. (4) Proper training should be given to all officials dealing with juvenile offenders. (5) Lastly, institutionalisation should be the last resort in rehabilitation work.
145. MATHUR, J.S., JAIN, S.P. and RAHIM, C.A., Rural Youth from Poverty Groups, Dropouts and Non-students-A Study of Four States, NIRD, 1982
The objectives of the study were (i) to examine the socioeconomic background of school/college dropouts and non-student youth, (ii) to identify the factors responsible for their withdrawal from schools/colleges before completion of studies and also for non- attendance among youth who do not enter the formal education system at all, (iii) to analyse the attitude of parents, teachers and rural leaders in respect of problems of dropouts and non-student youth and their participation in rural development, and (iv) to identify the factors responsible for variations in level of participation of these groups in economic and social development programme.
For selecting the sample of the study, four states-West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra-were taken. A multi-staged randomized sampling process was applied to select the sample at the various stages, viz., district, block and village. A sample of 1900 respondents, equally selected from each state, was of four categories, viz., 400 school/college dropouts, 400 parents of the dropouts, 400 non-student youth, 100 headmasters and senior teachers, 100 village leaders/officials. Based on the type of sample, four types of questionnaires were used. The data so collected were supplemented with the data collected through an interview schedule from these respondents.
The findings of study were: 1. Most of the parents felt that the school timings were unsuitable and did not provide adequate opportunity to the children to be helpful in their family occupation. 2. The extent of enrolment to different levels of education differed from state to state. West Bengal had less dropouts only in high schools, whereas in all other states the rate of dropouts in all the schools was similar. 3. The rate of dropouts in all the four states at primary school level was relatively high as compared to that at high school level. 4. Most of the students were provided with free education, free books and note-books, scholarship and mid-day meals at the primary stage. The extent of provision of facilities varied, however, from state to state. 5. The period of vacation in schools in all the four states did not fall in line with the work pattern of agricultural families. 6. The teachers in all the states indicated lack of job satisfaction, housing facilities and adequate remuneration. 7. Most of the parent respondents were illiterate. 8. The reasons mentioned by non-students for not attending school were poor financial position, parental ignorance, need to supplement family income, frequent migration of parents in search of employment, unforseen eventualities such as sickness, etc. 9. In the case of dropouts, the major reasons for discontinuation of studies were parental ignorance of the value of education, involvement in work, lack of interest in studies and failure in examination. 10. There was consensus among parents, teachers and leaders that the poor economic condition of families was mainly responsible for withdrawing children from school. 11. The majority of non-students were engaged in the family occupation, viz., agriculture or agricultural labour. 12. All respondents were agreed that youth had a big responsibility in acting as a change agent in the process of rural development. 13. Vocational education was preferred to formal school education by all categories of respondents.
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14. The measures suggested to involve youth in rural development programmes were participation in village development, formation of youth organizations, cooperation in the implementation of government programmes and communication of new knowledge to the villagers.
146. MATHUR, M., The Genesis of Actions, Deviants and Non-Deviants-A 'Value-Vector-Matrix' Study, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1982
The hypotheses were : (1) Deviance may affect the 'Value X Vector' incidence scores of individual actions of adolescents available in socio-cultural sets of family, school and society. (2) Deviance may affect the 'Value X Vector' incidence scores of group actions of adolescents available in socio-cultural sets of family, school and society. (3) Actor-membership may affect the 'Value X Vector' incidence scores of actions of adolescents available in socio-cultural sets of family, school and society.
The sample consisted of 400 male adolescent students of secondary schools of Agra town. The sample was selected through the stratified randomization technique. The Behavioural Deviance Scale (BDS) devel- oped by N.S. Chauhan was used for measuring deviance in behaviour. The split-half reliability coefficients ranged from 0.67 to 0.86. The Action Schedule was developed by the investigator. The data were analysed with the help of the chi-square test.
The findings were: 1. The individualist action of alienating property or spending more money than necessary was a characteristic property of withdrawing deviants. 2. Acquisition, construction and expansion of property on the individual level, were characteristic of expectation evasion deviants. 3. Individually the withdrawing deviants were atypically inclined towards acquisition, construction and expression of beauty. 4. Social ideology was collectively rejected both by withdrawing deviants and the rebellious deviants. 5. Rebellious deviants collectively strived to express their authority in the societal framework.
147. MATHUR, V., A Study of Political Attitudes and Alienation among Female College Students, Ph.D. Psy., Raj. U., 1985
Some of the objectives of the study were (i) to ascertain the process of crystallization of political attitudes among females who are non- participant either at the ideological opinion level or at the behavioural level, (ii) to explore the interactive influence of the estrangement of alienation factor and political ideological formation factor resulting in the crystallization of definite patterns of political attitude, and (iii) to ascertain the influence of affiliation as measured by five sub-components (loyality towards friends, parental attachment, attachment to neighbours, attachment to offspring and home, 'affiliation for social customs' to the formation of political attitude among females.
A sample of 300 female students of I year, II year and III year from a girls college of Jaipur was selected. The age of these students ranged from 17 to 19 years. All of them were urban dwellers coming from middle income groups. The data were collected with the help of The Eysenck et al. Political Attitude Inventory, the Sinha Attitude Scale (1979) for assessing affiliation, motivation and identity and the Srivastava Alienation Scale (1976). The scale had test-retest reliability of 0.73 and concurrent validity of 0.67. The Sihna Attitude Scale had a reliability (K-R formula) of 0.92 and concurrent validity of 0.69.
The findings of the study were: 1. The female college students, when they came in to the first year, had more of parental attachment, greater attachment to home, and also to social customs. However, after exposure to college life for a couple of years, these attachments gradually diminished. 2. The alienation scores at the point of entry in the educational institution at the first year level were enhanced at the point of exit, that is, at the third year level. 3. The degree of estrangement among college students was enhanced by the process of meaningless drift during college life, but by the time female student was about to leave college, a sense of purposefulness of life had developed. 4. The pressures and pulls exerted by the bi- polar poles of alienation and affiliation did not yield a 'G' factor to prove that political attitudes were pervaded and predetermined by the strong general factor. 5. Two factors came out implicitly from the data and these were labelled 'Social Affiliation for Home' and 'Affiliation for Social Customs'. These two factors were separate sub-dimensions and significant discriminent indices of affiliation. 6. The three criterion measures (affiliation, alienation and attitude) did not induce a compounded interactional effect. Each of the criteria measures influenced the other two in an independent and orthogonal order rather than obliquely.
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*148. MRIDULA, RAMANNA, English Education and Social Change in Bombay City, 1815-1858, Ph.D. Hist., Bom. U., 1985
The main objectives of the study were (i) to trace the establishment and development of English education in first half of the 19th century by studying the motivations of those who promoted English education, analysing how policy was formulated and examining the implementation of these policies through a review of the institutional system, and (ii) to assess the role of English education as an agency of social change.
The study employed the historical method and was based on primary source materials, viz., the records of the Bombay Government pertaining to education and the Elphinstone College records at the Government of Maharashtra Archives, the records at the National Ar- chives, New Delhi, annual reports of the various agencies responsible for education, official publications including published debates of the select committee in the House of Commons on East India Company affairs and British parliamentary papers. To analyse the social background of the English-educated, the quantitative data available in the Reports of the Board of Education regarding students on the rolls of the English and vernacular schools of Elphinstone Institution, the Elphinstone College, and Grant Medical College, and in the admission registers of Elphinstone College were tabulated according to caste and community. The percentages of students receiving English education between 1840 and 1855 were calculated.
The main conclusions of the study were: 1. The genesis of English education was the demand for it from Indians who wished to avail of the widening Job opportunities in the growing governmental administrative machinery and in the commercial offices in the city. 2. Differences in official attitudes towards education were noticed. The Governor of Bombay, Mountstuart Elphinstone, in his minute and in subsequent correspondence, contended that it was the duty of govern- ment to provide education, which he considered a reMedy for the country's ills. 3. The downward filtration theory was pursued in order to disseminate western knowledge, particularly, science and medicine. 4. English was accepted as the exclusive means of instruction in higher education. 5. Considerable Indian financial support was extended towards the establishment and development of western education. Their initiative and assistance were notable in the founding of the Bombay Native Education Society and its schools, the endowment of professorships which led to the starting of Elphinstone College. Jamsetji Jejeebhoy's magnificent donations made possible the establishment of Grant Medical College, the Jamsetji Jejeebhoy Parsee Benevolent Institution, a school for Parsis, and the J.J School of Arts. 5. This did not give Indians a voice in the educational policy. Government control increased with the Bombay Native Education Society being replaced by the Board of Education. Following the Despatch of 1854, there was further bureaucratization of education and a Director of Public Instruction took over, the Indian trustees to the funds being reduced to mere depositories. 6. The missionaries, who received no government support, promoted both English and vernacular education of boys and girls, attracting students of the lower castes, as well. 7. The social background of students in the government-controlled institutions showed common socioeconomic origins, with vernacular sections having a wider representation of castes and communities on their rolls. 8. There were differences in curricula. While secular education was provided in most schools, Christian education was imparted by missionaries. The syllabi were modelled on the syllabi of institutions in England. 9. An analysis of the careers pursued by stu- dents showed that the majority took up government employment, though medical graduates preferred more lucrative private practice. 10. The impact of the new education was to be seen in their literary productions and writings in the press wherein the educated dissemi- nated western knowledge and attempted to reinterpret traditional values and institutions in the light of their new knowledge.
149. MULIA., R.D., An Investigation into the Leadership Behaviour of Students in the context of Some Psycho- socio Factors, Ph.D. Edu., SPU., 1986
The objectives of the study were (i) to construct a reliable and valid leadership scale, (ii) to study the leadership behaviour of higher secondary students of science, commerce and arts streams, (iii) to study the leadership of higher secondary students of different age groups, (iv) to study the leadership of higher secondary students in the context 'of sex, (v) to study the leadership of higher secondary students in the context of their SES, IQs, achievements and social maturity, (iv) to study the leadership of higher secondary students in the context of some personality traits and adjustment.
A leadership behaviour scale was constructed by
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adopting a mixed Thurstone and Likert model. Initially, 97 statements on the aspects of (i) organization, (ii) policy making, (iii) expertise, (iv) group representation and (v) example setters were prepared and finally 50 statements were selected keeping in view the t-values, chi-square and Q values. The reliability of the scale was established by various methods. It ranged between 0.72 and 0.88. The congruent and concurrent validity were established. It was found to be 0.60 and 0.67 respectively. Percentile norms for boys and girls of different streams were fixed on a sample of 1000. SES Scale by B. V. Patel and I.A. Vora, a Social Maturity Scale by J. I. Vora, a Non- verbal Test of Intelligence by Tarulata Shah, a Personality Inventory by A. S. Patel and an Adjustment Inventory by J.C. Parikh and M.T. Patel were used for collecting data. 3x2x2 factorial design and analysis of variance technique were used for testing the hypotheses.
The major findings were: 1. The students of the science stream had higher leadership behaviour than students from the commerce and arts streams. 2. Girls were superior to boys in leadership behaviour. 3. Age, ranging between 15 and 21, had no significant relationship with leadership behaviour. 4. The SES variable had no effect on leadership behaviour. 5. There was no interaction between sex and stream. 6. The I. Q. showed a positive relationship with leadership behaviour. The students with high I.Q. had a higher level of leadership behaviour than those with low I.Q. 7. The mean obtained on the leadership behaviour scale by students belonging to the high educational achievement group was higher than that of low achievement group. 8. The means obtained on the leadership behaviour scale by pupils belonging to the high social-maturity group were higher than those of pupils of the low-maturity group. 9. The students with high self-sufficiency dependency had a higher level of leadership traits than the low self-sufficiency group. 10. A person having an extrovert trait of personality had a higher level of leadership behaviour than the introverts. 11. The students of the science stream with radical traits of personality were superior in leadership traits. 12. The mean obtained on the leadership behaviour scale was significantly in favour of a high level of emotional stability. 13. Sex, stream and emotional stability interacted with each other. 14. The neuroticism variable was not related with leadership behaviour. 15. The mean obtained on the leadership scale of students belonging to a high level of social adjustment was higher than that of students of the low adjustment group. 16. The vocational adjustment variable had a poor positive relationship with leadership behaviour. 17. Students with high educational adjustment had higher levels of leadership trait than those with low adjustment. 18. Students with high family adjustment had higher levels of leadership than those from the low adjustment group. 19. Students with high personal adjustment had higher levels of leadership traits than those with low adjustment. 20. There was no interaction between stream and sex. Both operated independently.
150. NAGAR, D., A Study of the Socio-Psychological Problems and Personality Patterns of the Deprived Children Living in Destitute Homes of Rajasthan, Ph.D. Edu., M Sukh. U., 1985
The major objectives of the study were (i) to find out the socio- psychological problems of deprived children living in destitute homes and compare them with the problems of normal children, (ii) to compare socio-psychological problems of tribal and non-tribal deprived children, (iii) to compare the personality patterns of deprived and normal children and tribal and non-tribal deprived children, (iv) to study the sex differences with respect to socio-psychological problems and personality patterns of deprived children, and (v) to study the creativity of deprived children.
The tools used were the Group Test of Intelligence by R. K. Tandon, Cattell's HSPQ, a Test of Self Concept by Sherry and Goswami, Sinha's Comprehensive Anxiety Scale, the Educational Interest Record of S.P. Kulshrestha, the Level of Aspiration Measure by Shah and Bhargava, Rotter's Incomplete Sentence Blank, the Socio-psychological Problem Check-list for Deprived Children constructed by the investigator and an interview schedule. The sample consisted of 200 deprived children from 14 out of 47 destitute homes of Rajasthan and 200 normal children. Sex-wise there was an equal number of boys and girls. The children in the two groups were equated on age and IQ. Both the survey approach and the case study approach were used for the investigation.
The major findings were: 1. About 13 per cent of the students fell in the category of highly problematic children, 75 per cent of the deprived children were suffering from many problems. About 30 per cent of the deprived girls had more than 55 per cent problems whereas the corresponding percentage of boys was 10. Girls had more problems than boys. 2. The tribal deprived children felt less problems than the non-tribal deprived
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children, though statistically the difference was not significant. But in the specific problem area of 'morality', tribal children had more problems than the non-tribals. 3. The normal children and the deprived children differed significantly in their problems. This was true in the case of both boys and girls studied separately. The deprived girls were found overburdened and highly tense. They had more family problems. They were more worried about their uncertain future, dowry and problems related to broken homes. 4. The group of normal tribals felt less problems than the group of deprived tribals. 5. The deprived children showed lack of adjustment with the environment. They did not accept group moral standards and they disregarded social rules. They had low mental capacity and could not handle abstract problems. They had low self-concept and they were un- stable emotionally. 6. Both tribal and non-tribal deprived children were equally aggressive, reserved, emotionally less stable and stubborn. They disregarded social rules and were shy, timid and reflective. They had guilt proneness, group dependency and high tensions. 7. The non-tribal deprived children were more dull than the tribal deprived children. The tribal deprived children were more enthusiastic than non-tribal children. 8. The deprived girls had weaker superego and the deprived boys had low self-sentiment integration. The deprived girls were more reserved, detached, critical, aloof and stiff than the deprived boys. The deprived boys were more excitable, impatient, demanding and overactive while the deprived girls were deliberate and inactive. 9. There were significant differences between the personality patterns of deprived tribal and non-tribal children. 10. The deprived children were more creative than the normal children but in the case of boys, normal boys were more creative than deprived boys. 11. The environment of destitute homes was not good.
The educational implications of the study were: 1. The environment of destitute homes should be improved carefully. This would mitigate a large number of socio-psychological problems. (2) Efforts should be made by the authorities of the destitute homes to inculcate human values among the inmates. (3) Selection of Grih Mata needed more care and seriousness.
151. NAQVI, T., Economic Stratum and Age as Correlates of Certain Personality Modes- A Cross-Cultural Study, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1982
The objectives of the study were (i) to study the impact of cultural differences, generation gap and economic stratum on six types of values, four types of personality needs, self-concept and neuroticism, (ii) to study the interaction between economic stratum and culture, economic-stratum and generation gap, and culture and generation gap while affecting value orientations, personality needs, neuroticism, and self-concept, and (iii) to study the second order interaction between economic stratum, culture and generation gap while influencing the aforesaid dependent variables.
The sample comprised 360 subjects of which 180 were adolescents and 180 adults: 180 were Indian and 180 Iranian. They represented different economic strata. The sample was selected with the help of the stratified random sampling technique. Mental health was assessed with the help of the PGI Health Questionnaire developed by N.N. Wig and S.K. Verma. The split half reliability coefficient was 0.92. The Value Orientation Scale by N.S. Chauhan was used to measure values. Self-concept was measured with the help of the Self-concept Inventory by Mukta and Rani Rastogi. The Personality Need Inventory by C.P. Verma was used to assess personality. The test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from 0.54 to 0.79. The data were analysed with the help of factorial design analysis of variance of equal cell size and Duncon's Multiple Range Test.
The findings were: 1. As a whole, Iranians tended to be more neurotic than Indians; adolescents tended to be more neurotic than adults, and low as well as high economic stratum promoted symptoms of neuroticism. 2. Subjects belonging to high economic strata wanted drastic change in the social as well as economic stature of their respective countries. Iranians had more needs of achievement as well as affiliation. Economic stratum did not play a significant role in need for order, affiliation and achievement. The inter-generation gap was a significant correlate of need for change but it was an in- significant correlate of need for order, affiliation and achievement. 3. The bivariate interaction of crossnational difference, and economic stratum or intergeneration gap and other combinations revealed some alarming facts. Indian adults had more need for change than Iranian adults. Indian adolescents had more need of change in comparison with Iranian adolescents. Indian adolescents proved to be superior and were much infused with western culture than the Iranian adolescents. They did not like the classical, traditional mode of living. They wanted to move forward, they wanted drastic change. The Iranian adults too were not satisfied with the present system. They also wanted change. (4) Value-
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orientations were deeply rooted in adults. Indian adults tended to be more progressive and were more scientism value-orientation in comparison with Iranian adults. Iranian adolescents tended to be more progressivism' and scientism oriented than Indian adolescents.
152. NAYAK, K. D., A Study of Adjustment and Job Satisfaction of Married and Unmarried Lady Teachers, Ph.D. Psy., Jab. U., 1982
The objectives of the study were (i) to study the level of job satisfaction among married and unmarried female teachers, (ii) to study the difference in the adjustment of married and unmarried female teachers of different categories, (iii) to study the differences in the job satisfaction of married and unmarried female teachers of different categories (lower-division teachers, upperdivision teachers and higher-secondary teachers), (iv) to study the differences in the job satisfaction and adjustment of urban married and unmarried female teachers, and (v) to study the relationship between job satisfaction and teaching aptitude of rural and urban married and unmarried female teachers.
The sample of the study consisted of 735 female teachers teaching as lower-division teachers, upperdivision teachers and lecturers in different highersecondary schools of Jabalpur district. Of these, 375 teachers (300 working in rural areas and 75 in urban areas) were married and 410 (300 working in urban areas and 110 in rural areas) were unmarried. The tools employed for data collection were the Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire by Dr Pramod Kumar and D.N. Mutha, the Adjustment Inventory for College Students by A.K.P. Sinha and Dr. R.P. Singh, and the Teaching Aptitude Test by Dr. Jai Prakash and R.P. Srivastava. Frequency distribution, t-test, and coefficient of correlation were the statistical technique used for analysing the data.
The major findings of the study were: 1. No significant difference in the job satisfaction of married and unmarried female teachers working in rural and urban areas was found. 2. No significant difference was found in the teaching aptitude of married and unmarried teachers of different categories working in rural and urban areas. 3. Adjustment problems were observed in the context of unmarried lower- division teachers and upper-division teachers, whereas no significant adjustment problems were observed in the case of unmarried lecturers. 4. No significant difference was found in the adjustment of urban and rural married teachers of lower-division and upper division categories, whereas married lecturers were found to have some adjustment problems with their environment. 5. Teaching aptitude was found to have a significantly positive relationship with job satisfaction of female teachers. 6. Job satisfaction was not found to affect the adjustment of female teachers significantly. 7. Differences in the job satisfaction of married and unmarried female teachers of different categories working in rural or urban areas were not found to be significant.
*153. OMPRAKASH, S., Caste and Politics in Indian Education, Dept of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT, Kanpur, 1986
The main purpose of the study was to study in depth the underlying causes of the educational, psychological and social problems of IIT students of Kanpur
The sample consisted of 160 socially advantaged and 80 socially disadvantaged B.Tech. students of IIT, Kanpur. The tools used for the purpose of data collection were students profile, under-privileged students interaction scale, family information questionnaire, Bell's Adjustment Inventory, Student's Personal Problems Index by Wig and Nagpal (1980), and a self-devised interview schedule. The survey method was adopted for the study. Descriptive statistics, t-test, product moment correlation, chi-square and factor analysis were used for analysis of data.
The findings of the study were: 1. The socially advantaged were better adjusted than their socially disadvantaged counterparts with regard to academic, social, financial and psychological dimensions. The socially disadvantaged had problems on all the four dimensions of adjustment. 2. The socially advantaged did not perceive any difficulty that the socially disadvantaged faced during academic interaction. The socially advantaged group did not have healthy social interaction with the socially disadvantaged group. 3. The socially disadvantaged students did not enjoy much happiness as compared to their socially advantaged counterparts. 4. The academic measures indicated that the disadvantaged students were trailing behind the socially advantaged students in all the four academic years. 5. The socially advantaged students and conducive family size, better interaction of father with the child, better financial position, higher educational background of family and progressive ideas, and composite childhood experi-
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ences. 6. The socially disadvantaged students had maximum problems in the academic area which led to frustration. 7. The social distance being imposed on the backward community students forced them to with- draw into their solitary and isolated shells, enhancing a feeling of insecurity. 8. Counselling did not help them due to its poor administration.
154. PALIWAL, O.P., Cultural-Familial Mental Retar- dation and its Susceptibility to Preventive Measures in the Case of Rural Children, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1985
The objectives were (i) to understand the nature and incidence of cultural-familial mental retardation as found in an Indian society, (ii) to understand the mental retardation due to cultural-familial causes in the Indian society, (iii) to determine and study the impact of deprivation, parents' intelligence, caste and culture on the cultural-familial mental retardation, (iv) to obtain interactions among as well as between deprivation, parents' intelligence, caste and culture, (v) to seek preventive measures for checking the cultural- familial mental retardation, especially for cases among the poor and in rural areas, (vi) to understand the susceptibility to preventive measures among rural children who were retarded due to cultural- familial causes, and (vii) to suggest ways and means which seem practical and feasible for the objective of its prevention, and for treatment and rehabilitation.
The sample consisted of eighty subjects, rural and urban, at different deprivation and parents' intelligence levels. The sample was selected with the help of stratified random sampling technique. The Culture Fair Intelligence Test by Cattell was used to measure intelligence. Deprivation was assessed with the help of the Prolonged Deprivation Scale (PDS) by G. Mishra and L.B.Tripathi. Its test-retest and split-half reliability coefficients were 0.77 and 0.95 respectively. A personal data blank cum interview schedule was also used. The data were analysed with the help of factorial design analysis of variance and the chi-square technique.
The findings were: 1. Rural area had a higher incidence of mental retardation than the urban areas. 2. Deprivation added to cultural- familial mental retardation (CFMR). 3. Children from parents belonging to low castes were more mentally retarded (cultural-familial type) than those from high caste parents in both rural and urban areas. 4. The number of CFMR cases with illiterate rural parents exceeded that in the cases in urban areas. Similarly, CFMR cases with literate parents were more in urban than in rural area. 5. Maternal age af- fected the number of CFMR cases. The number of CFMR cases among advanced-age mothers was high in both rural and urban areas. 6. The incidence of CFMR was higher among children of parents whose occupations were of lower nature. 7. Parents living in slums and un- hygienic houses had greater incidence of CFMR cases among their children than those whose parents lived in spread-out, healthy and developed locations. 8. Incidence of CFMR was higher in the case of later-born siblings (birth order after four) than previously born (birth order first and second) children. 9. Parents having normal or superior mental health had low incidence of CFMR among their children whereas those having poor mental health had higher number of incidence of CFMR in their offsprings. 10. The longer the period of depriva- tion, the greater the incidence of CFMR. 11. Housing condition, economic sufficiency, food and nutrition, childhood experiences, rearing experiences, motivational experiences, travel and recreational experiences were significant correlates of cultural-familial mental retardation (CFMR). 12. Emotional experiences, religious experiences and home environment were not found to be significant correlates of CFMR. 13. Cultural background, parents' intelligence and caste were important and significant correlates of CFMR. 14 Impact of two levels of culture on CFMR was dependent on the two levels of parents' intelligence and vice versa.
155. PANDEY, P.S. A Study of Socio-economic Opportunity and Educational Achievement, Ph.D. Soc., Kashi U., 1981
The present investigation aimed at studying the effect of various environmental and socio-economic factors, means of communication, playmates, participation in students' union and coeducation on educational achievement.
The sample consisted of 250 postgraduate students of five postgraduate colleges belonging to Balia, Deoria, Azamgarh, Gajipur and Mirzapur districts. On the basis of the proportionate random sampling technique, only male students were included in the study. Data were collected with the help of an interview schedule consisting of 202 items. This tool consisted of six subsections. The items were not equally distributed over different sub-areas of the tool. The six sub-areas includ-
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ed in the schedule were (i) personal data of the respondents, (ii) environmental information, (iii) social status of the respondents, (iv) economic status of the respondents, (v) means of communication, (vi) formal and non-formal participation of the students. Most of the items were structured. In order to measure the academic achievement of the respondents, divisions at high school, intermediate and graduate levels were taken into consideration. A sort of grading system was adopted. For first division, nine points; for second division seven points; and for third division five points, were given. Thus, the maximum achievement score was 27 and the minimum score 15 if the respondent passed the examination at first attempt. For passing the examination in two years, five points were deducted; for passing in three years, ten points were deducted; and for passing in the forth year, 15 points were deducted. Students were interviewed individually.
The major findings of the study were: 1. An urban atmosphere was more conducive to achievement than the rural environment. 2. With advance in age, academic achievement decreased. 3. Education of the parents had a positive effect on academic achievement of the re- spondents. 4. Respondents belonging to unitary families showed higher academic achievement than the respondents from the joint families. 5. The effect of caste was neutral over academic achievement. 6. Unmarried respondents scored higher grades at different stages of education. 7. Religion did not show any effect on academic achievement. 8. Respondents coming from the business class scored poorer grades than respondents belonging to the service class. 9. Perception of economic status had a negative effect on academic achievement. 10. Participation in unionism led to poor academic achievement. 11. Coeducation had a positive impact on achievement. 12. A negative image of the teacher among respondents had an adverse effect on academic achievement.
The following were the implications of the study: (1) The rural environment in which 80 per cent of India's population dwells should be improved by introducing better facilities for education, conveyance, communication, medical care and by increasing adult literacy. (2) Early marriage should be abolished. (3) In order to pro- vide equal educational opportunities to the economically deprived, an effective system of scholarships should be introduced. (4) Teachers with a positive attitude towards their profession should be appointed.
156. PANDEY, S.S., A Study of the Socio-Psychological Characteristics of Sociometric Stars and Social Iso- lates, Ph. D. Edu., Avadh U., 1985
The study was designed to find out the correlates of social acceptability among the high school students. The independent variables selected for the study were socioeconomic status of the family, level of intelligence, academic achievement and adjustment.
The sample for the study consisted of 575 class X students studying in 15 sections of eight randomly selected higher secondary schools in Lucknow.
The sociometric status of the students was determined with the help of Chopra's Sociometric Test of Social Acceptability. For assessment of the level of intelligence of the students, Jalota's Group General Mental Ability Test was administered. The SocioEconomic status of the families of the students was determined with the help of Kuppuswamy's SocioEconomic Status Scale and assessment of the level of adjustment was made with the help of Saxena's Vyaktitva Parakh Prashanawali.
The main findings of the study were: 1. The mean adjustment scores for the sociometric stars were high in all the five areas. 2. Students from families with higher socio-economic status tended to be socially more acceptable. 3. There was a positive relationship between level of intelligence and social acceptability. 4. There was a positive relationship between social acceptability and academic achievement.
On the basis of his findings the author has suggested that efforts would be made in schools to promote social acceptability among students by encouraging them to participate in cocurricular activities.
157. PANNEERSELVAM, A., A Study of Educational and Occupational Aspirations of Parents in a Chosen Agricultural and Industrial Community in the Tiruchirappali District of Tamil Nadu., Ph.D. Adult Edu., Madras U., 1984
The main objective of the investigation was to study the aspirations of parents in the agricultural and in the industrial communities regarding their children's education and occupation and to compare the aspirations of parents belonging to different social groups within the agricultural and industrial communities.
A sample of 218 patents from the industrial community working in Bharat Heavy Electricals and 192 par-
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ents from the agricultural community Kalkandarkottai panchayat area in the same geographical locality was selected, adopting the stratified random sampling technique. Twelve variables, viz., locality, age, educational level, occupational level, income and awareness (of educational and occupation structure) of parents, religion, caste, type and size of family, sex and sibling order of the child were considered to be contributing factors to parental aspirations. An interview schedule and a self-anchoring striving scale-the ladder technique-developed by Cantrill were the tools used to collect data. Hypotheses were formulated indicating the relationship between the selected variables and the aspirations of parents regarding their children's education and occupations. Differential hypotheses were generated based on the sex of the child and the caste of the parents.
The important findings were : 1. In the agricultural community, the parental aspirations were related to the father's educational level, family income, caste, occupational awareness of the parents, and the sex of the child, but not to the size of the family, age of the father, type of the family, birth order of male children. 2. In the industrial community, the parental aspirations were related to educational levels of father and mother, family income, age of father, occupation and awareness of parents, but not to the age of children, and religion and caste of the parents. 3. The parental aspirations for the first child, whether boy or girl, did not differ in the industrial community whereas they differed in the agricultural community.
158. PAREKH, R., Adolescents: Their Social Background and Problems, Ph.D. Soc., SNDT U., 1982
The objectives of the study were (i) to examine the phenomenon of adolescence in the background of the cultural ethos of Indian society, (ii) to study the influence of social background, particularly the family and college, on the adolescents, (iii) to identify the problems of adolescents, and (iv) to examine the attitudes and aspirations of adolescents.
The sample consisted of 300 adolescents selected from two coeducational and two non-coeducational colleges. The sample constituted six per cent of the total which was selected randomly. The sample consisted of 30 per cent male and 70 per cent female adolescents. A structured questionnaire was used for collection of data. The questionnaire consisted of four sections, namely socio- personal data, family relationships, attitudes and aspirations, and problems. The collected data was analysed using percentage as a statistical technique.
The major findings were: 1. Adolescent years did not seem to be very stressful. The period of transition for an adolescent appeared to be smooth because of the overwhelming support of the family and the socialization process which inculcated respect for elders. 2. Ado- lescents had high reliance on the family. 3. Adolescent culture, on the one hand, revealed a modem outlook in dress and overt behaviour, and traditionalism in the core values on the other. 4. Forty-two per cent of the adolescents had shown deviation in values. 5. Sex played a significant role in determining the behaviour pattern of adolescents. 6. The socioeconomic background of the adolescents seemed to have great impact on them. 7. It was found that boys spent more time in games than the girls. Girls preferred to watch TV or listen to the radio, and loved to gossip. Girls viewed education from the academic aspect while boys viewed it from the vocational aspect. Boys aspired for professional courses, girls for liberal arts.
159. PARMAR, M.S., Sociological Study of Social Values and Aspirations of Students of Colleges of Rural Background, Ph.D. Soc., Avadh U., 1986
The objective of the investigation was to make a sociological analysis of values and aspirations (in educational, economic and political dimensions) of youth in a changing rural environment.
The investigation was an exploratory and the study descriptive. The sample consisted of 296 male and 54 female students who were selected, using the stratified random sampling technique, from all the six rural colleges of Pratapgarh district all affiliated to Avadh University. The tools of the study were the Socio-Economic Status Scale (Rural) of Pareekh and Trivedi, and an interview schedule prepared by the investigator. Percentages and chi-square were used for analysing the data.
The main findings of the study were: 1. Acquisition of, knowledge was the main aim of education according to the majority of students. More than half favoured vocational-technical education. 2. A sizeable number of students wanted education for females and believed its purpose was to make them self-dependent. 3. Students planned to continue their studies further. Most of them
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studied arts subjects. Their educational aspiration was of medium level. 4. There seemed to be a close relationship between educational aspiration and social class, caste and sex. 5. The ideal profession was considered to be that which gave status in society and developed personality. Teaching was considered as an ideal profession. Higher administrative services and agriculture occupied second and third places. 6. For success in one's profession, health, family background and behaviour were considered as significant factors. 7. Students were mostly inclined to seek white-collar jobs. They were determined to achieve their professional aspirations and wanted to join these professions because of personal interest, higher income and status. 8. Aspiration for material objects was limited. Income aspiration was also low. 9. Social mobility was limited. 10. A positive relationship seemed to exist between social class, caste and sex, and aspirations for profession, material possessions and income. 11. About two-thirds of the students were interested in politics. A good number of them considered it a form of national service. Their political ideology resembled that of the Congress (I) party. 12. Student union elections were generally disfavoured. Reduction in the age of franchise was desired. The democratic form of government was liked by most students and unemployment was considered as the greatest problem of the country. 13. There was a relative relationship between social class, caste and sex, and interest in politics.
160. PATEL, H.S.,A Stud of Role Perception of the Pri- mary School Teachers in Relation to Their PsychoSocial Characteristics, Ph.D. Edu., SPU, 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to prepare a tool to measure role perception of primary school teachers, (ii) to compare the role perception of male and female primary school teachers, (iii) to compare the role perception of the primary school teachers of rural and urban areas, (iv) to study the role perception of backward class and non-backward class primary school teachers, (v) to study the role perception of primary school teachers in relation to their experience of teaching, educational qualifications, age, socioeconomic status, their personality factors, and (vi) to study the expectation of the heads, administrative staff and members of the society, other than teaching profession, regarding the role perception of primary school teachers.
The tools used for collecting data were an Inventory to measure the role perception of primary school teachers constructed by the investigator, the Socio-Economic Status Scale prepared by A.S. Patel, and the 16 PF Questionnaire prepared by Cattell and modified by K.A.. Gandhi. The reliability of the Role Perception Inventory by the test- retest method was found to be 0.62. The data were collected from 2000 teachers of whom 600 were from urban and 1400 from rural areas. The t-test was used for testing the significance of the difference between means.
Some of the findings were: 1. There was no significant difference between the role perception of male and female teachers. 2. There was a significant difference between the role perception of rural and urban teachers, and it was in favour of rural teachers. 3. There was a significant difference between the role perception of backward-class teachers and non-backward-class teachers. It was in favour of backward-class teachers. 4. Younger teachers had better role perceptions than older teachers. 5. There was no difference between the role perception of highly qualified and less qualified teachers. 6. There was a significant difference between the role perception of teachers coming from high SES and those coming from low SES and it was in favour of the high SES group. 7. There was no significant difference between the role perception of teachers having different personality characteristics. 8. It was found that the teachers of high SES gave more attention to the teaching of pupils than those of low SES. 9. The primary school teachers did not keep close relations with supervisors and with the society. 10. The teachers wanted to participate in the framing of syllabus. 11. The teachers were of the opinion that when they came in contact with other teachers, it helped them to get new ideas which would be useful to them in teaching.
161. PATEL, M.G., A Study of the Prevalent Value System of the Students of South Gujarat Studying in Standards X and XI, Ph.D. Edu., SGU, 1981
The objectives were (i) to study the philosophical and psychological aspects of value systems, (ii) to construct an inventory of value systems, (iii) to establish the reliability, validity and norms of the inventory of value systems, (iv) to validate the prepared inventory against other available measurements of value systems, and (v) to study the relationship between value systems and sex, grade, area, and income level. The hypotheses of the study were: (1) The students sub- grouped according to sex, grade, area and income level of parents will differ
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from each other on the value system. (2) Various patterns of values will reveal basic differences in the outlook and orientation of the students. (3) Students possess common, distinct patterns of values, in spite of differences on various variables.
Twenty-one high schools from four districts of South Gujarat were selected. The Student Values Inventory was standardized on a sample of 989 students of X and XI standards. The investigator prepared an information schedule for collecting relevant information. Validity was determined on a group of 50 students by calculating the product- moment correlation between different scores. The reliability of the tool was established by the split-half method.
The major findings were: 1. As the age increased the students became more sociable. The older students were more involved in economic value than the younger ones. 2. The girl students scored higher than the boy students on rational values. 3. In religious values, the higher income girl students scored higher than the higher income boy students. 4. In scientific values, lower income urban students scored higher than the higher income urban students. 5. Students of both the sexes and both the standards scored high for moral value. However, the lower income rural students scored higher than the lower income urban students. 6. The majority of the students liked to be active in aesthetic or art-oriented activities. Here, the girl students scored higher than the boy students. 7. The girls scored higher than the boys on religious, moral and scientific values. 8. On economic, moral, political and aesthetic values, the students of Std. XI scored higher than the students of standard X. 9. On all other values, except the rational and the political, the urban students scored higher than the rural students. 10. On social, rational and moral values, students with lower income scored higher than students with higher income.
*162. PATHAN, N.M., A Critical Study of the Causes Responsible for the Educational Backwardness of the Muslim Women and to Suggest Ways and Means for Improvement, Ph.D. Edu., Shi. U., 1986
The major objectives of the research were (i) to study the position of Muslim women in Solapur district with respect to education, age and economic status, (ii) to study the effects of economic, social, religious and political factors and other causes responsible for the educational backwardness of the Muslim women and (iii) to suggest measures to improve the educational backwardness of the Muslim women.
A stratified random sample of one thousand Muslim women was taken for the study. It comprised 199 and 70 urban and rural literates, 120 and 165 urban and rural semi-literates and 181 and 265 urban and rural illiterates. The data were collected through structured interviews of all the women included in the study. The interview schedule consisted of 33 items related 'to personal information and economic, social, religious, political and other factors responsible for the educational backwardness. The researcher also collected opinions of 209 Muslim experts and 306 non-Muslim experts from all over the country. The opinionnaire consisted of nine items related to the factors mentioned earlier.
The major findings of the study were: 1. The illiterate Muslim women mainly belonged to the age group of 30 to 40. 2. The number of children in a family was seven or more and the women were quite aloof from the concept of a small family. 3. Giving less education to the girls was the common attitude in the parents, both in rural and urban areas. 4. The practice of early marriage was seen especially among the rural literate Muslims. 5. Most of the rural girls and women preferred to work for their livelihood than to undergo formal schooling. 6. The lack of social stimulation and encouragement, on the one hand, and the opposition of relatives and family members, on the other, contributed heavily to Muslim women's educational backwardness. 7. In urban area, the main factors responsible for the educational backwardness of the Muslim women were found to be economic, whereas in the case of the rural Muslim women there was a wide diversity of causes. 8. Religious factors were less responsible for educational backwardness in comparison with other factors. 9. Muslim women. especially in rural areas, were unaware of the different government schemes and facilities available for women.
163. PATNI, U., The Values Held by College Girls and Their Relation with Achievement Motivation Ph.D. Edu., M.. Sukh. U., 1983
The major objectives of the study were (i) to find out the relationship between values and achievement motivation among college girls, and (ii) to develop and standardize a test of values for college girls in India.
The sample consisted of 1002 college girls from eight
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colleges of Rajasthan. The sample included only the final year college girls of the arts, science and commerce faculties. The normative survey method was followed. The tools used were a Scale of Life Values developed and standardized by the investigator, and Mukherjee's Sentence Completion Test. Descriptive statistics and critical ratio were used for drawing conclusions.
The major findings were : 1. The girls studying in different faculties had almost similar value patterns. 2. All students showed the highest preference for aesthetic values. The girls of all faculties showed comparatively high preference for money and materialistic values over other values. 3. The students showed minimum preference for moral values. 4. The science and commerce students did not differ significantly on aesthetic values but the arts students gave more importance to aesthetic values. Arts and commerce students had equal knowledge values but the science students gave less importance to knowledge values. Religious values received equal pref- erence from all the three groups. 4. The arts and commerce girls differed significantly on aesthetic values, money and materialistic values and moral values. 5. The science and commerce students differed significantly on knowledge values, social values, national and political values and self values. 6. The arts and science students differed significantly on knowledge values, aesthetic values, social values, national and political values, moral values, and self values. 7. The science students were found higher on social values and national and political values than the other two groups. 8. The high- achievement motivated group put money and material values first and aesthetic values second. In the low-achievement motivated group, the order was reversed. 9. The high-achievement motivated girls preferred national and political values over self values, whereas the low- achievement motivated girls preferred self values over national and political values. 10. The high and low-achievement motivated groups placed the moral values in lowest preference. 11. The high- achievement motivated group and the low-achievement motivated group differed significantly on aesthetic values, religious values, national and political values and moral values. 12. The low-achievement motivated group was more aesthetic and more religious than the high- achievement motivated group. 13. These two groups, with high and low- achievement motivation, did not differ significantly on knowledge values, money and material values, social values and self values. 14. The correlations of values and achievement motivation of each category of values in all the three groups were found to be insignificant. 15. In the group of arts students, knowledge values, aesthetic values and money and material values were negatively correlated with level of achievement motivation, whereas in the science group only knowledge and aesthetic values, and in the commerce group, only money and material values, were negatively correlated with the level of n- achievement of these students. 16. In the science group, the money and material values, religious values, social values, national- political self and moral values, correlated positively with the achievement motivation level of the students, but the correlation was insignificant. 17. The girls of the commerce faculty bad positive though insignificant correlation of achievement motivation with the all categories of values except money material values. 18. Religious values, social, national political values, self values and moral values bad the positive but insignificant correlation with achievement motivation.
164. PATTNAIK, S.K., A Psycho-social Profile of Al- ienated Students, Ph.D. Psy., JNU, 1983
The hypotheses formulated were: (1) Students scoring high in one alienated outlook are high in the rest of the alienated outlooks, viz. pessimism, social-alienation, distrust, anxiety, unstructured universe, egocentricity, inter-personal alienation, self-contempt, and vacillation. (2) A significant and positive relation exists between societal and organizational alienation. (3) An inverse relationship exists between alienation and study organization and a significant difference also exists in the study organization between highly alienated and lowly alienated students. (4) An inverse relationship exists between alienation and mobility commitment. (5) An inverse relationship exists between alienation and social participation. (6) Female students differ significantly in alienation from male students. (7) Students of' science and social science differ significantly in alienation. (8) The socioeconomic status of the student is inversely related to alienation. (9) Students who are exposed to advantageous schooling are lower on the alienation measure than those who are exposed to disadvantageous schooling. (10) Parental support and training are inversely related to alienation.
The sample consisted of 415 randomly drawn students-hostelites and day scholars-from various schools at Jawaharlal Nehru University. The tools used were an Alienation Scale developed by the author, the University vs. Societal Alienation Scale of Payne
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(1975), the Study Organization Inventory of Indiresan (1979), the Mobility Commitment Scale of Neal and Retting (1963), the Social Participation Index of Bell (1958) and the Socio-Economic Status Index of Pattnaik (1980). To test the hypotheses, both intercorrelations and t-tests were employed. Intercorrelations between the variables were computed to see the direction and extent of relationship between variables under study. Two criterion groups, high-alienated and low- alienated students, were formed on the bases of their scores. The mean differences of these two extreme groups with regard to different psycho-social variables were computed. The mean differences were also computed on the alienation measure within sub-group variables such as sex, discipline, socioeconomic status and school management.
The major findings were: 1. Students' scores on one dimension of alienation were similar to their scores on other dimensions. 2. Alienation from society as a societal-level cause and alienation from university as an organisational-level cause co-varied at both levels of focus and alienation was consistent at the micro and macro levels. 3. An inverse relationship existed between alienation and study behaviour-the higher the alienation level, the poorer was the study organization. 4. An inverse relationship existed between alienation and social participation. The pessimistic outlook in life, es- trangement from interpersonal and social relationships, distrust, and ego-centricity contributed significantly to the alienated students' desire not to attach importance to-both formal and informal relationships and to events of social concern. 5. Male students showed higher levels of alienation than female students. 6. Alienation was associated with both conditions of material deprivation and affluence. 7. Students' schooling background did not show any impact on the levels of alienation. 8. Students perceived parental control and training obtained in formative years were significantly related to the level of alienation. 9. A student's discipline of study did not explain alienation. 10. Student activists came largely from a well-to-do and privileged backgrounds.
165. PAUL, P.V., A Study of Value Orientations of Ado- lescent Boys and Girls, Ph.D. Psy., MSU, 1986
The major objectives of the inquiry were (i) to compare rural and urban adolescent boys and girls going to schools and colleges with respect to personal, social, instrumental, terminal and work values, (ii) to study the relative degree of importance within the same hierarchy for the same set of values for different groups of subjects, and (iii) to study the factor structure of various values for rural and urban groups.
The sample consisted of 1076 adolescent boys and girls of Baroda district. Students of classes XI and XII of higher secondary schools and those of the first year of the degree course in arts, science and commerce of urban and rural areas comprised the sample. The tools used were the Personal Value Scale, Social Value Scale, Instrumental Value Scale, and Terminal Value Scale, all developed by the investigator and the Work Value Scale of Vyas adapted for the study by the investigator. The scales had reliability ranging from 0.33 to 0.76 measured by the test-retest method. Analysis of variance and factor analysis with varimax rotation were used to arrive at findings.
The major findings were: 1. The urban adolescents were more highly oriented to competence, maturity and maintaining harmonious relations; more affectionately disposed to others, with sincerity and tolerance; and strove for the accomplishment of their goal in more mature and competent ways than rural adolescents. They had a stronger social orientation than rural adolescents. The rural adolescents were more concerned about economic returns and variety, whereas the urban adolescents were more concerned about prestige. 2. The college adolescents were more strongly oriented towards applying themselves steadily to goals aimed at, more stable and more optimistic, whereas school adolescents were more oriented to appreciating the value of tidiness. With respect to social values, the college adolescents strove more for social harmony, peace and social service, while the school adolescents were more oriented to showing warm affection to others. The college adolescents were more courageous while the school adolescents were more oriented towards being independent and loving to others. In the case of terminal values, the school adolescents were more strongly oriented towards enjoying happiness and social recognition, while college adolescents strived more for freedom and mature appreciation. With respect to work values, the school ado- lescents strived more for economic returns and intellectual stimulation, whereas college adolescents strived more towards achievement orientation. 3. The male adolescents were more striving for their ambition and excellence and more service-oriented than female adolescents. The female adolescents were more oriented to appreciating tidiness, more aesthetic in nature, conscious of being punctual and regular, more striving for
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harmony, love, sympathy, tolerance, peace; and more oriented to competence and sound character, striving more for happiness, a peaceful life and gaining economic returns, as compared to male adolescents. 4. The science-stream adolescents strived more for strong work habits and were more courageous than general-stream adolescents. Their orientation was more towards maintaining and practising social relation in comparison with the general stream adolescents. The science stream adolescents were more competence-oriented, strived more for freedom and recognition as compared to general-stream students who strived for happiness and comfort. The general-stream students strived more towards seeking a job full of variety and social contact than the science-stream students. 5. Factor analysis showed rural adolescents striving for personal happiness and competence, having a materialistic bent of mind, striving for self-discipline, more con- cerned about prestige and economic returns, attaching importance to dignity of work, striving for national security, being more service- oriented, striving for selfesteem-orientation, gaining self-strength and showing signs of social and personal retardation. The factors un- derlying the value-orientation of urban adolescents were the striving for pleasure and security, creative achievement, a self-constricted personality, personal courage, social orientation, self-adaptation, low achievement-orientation, a strong leaning towards working more earnesty for achievement of their aspirations, being more moralistics, seeking recognition, pleasure, social harmony, more concerned about self-reliance.
166. PRADHAN, K.M., A Study of Women's Affairs Training Programme: A Strategy for Rural Development in Nepal, Ph.D. Edu., Pan. U., 1986
The objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of a women's affairs training programme on rural life by assessing, (i) the usefulness and effectiveness of the training programme on the basis of opinions, reactions and suggestions of the respondents, and (ii) the predictability, utility and adequacy of the course contents in the context of rural life situations.
The study adopted an ex post facto design by taking three groups- women workers (ww), under-training women (UT) and potential trainees (PT). The sample of the study consisted of 235 subjects. In the first group there were 24 women workers (ww), the group had 82 under- training women (UT) and the third had 115 potential trainees. The women's affairs training programme comprised training to put knowledge into practice with regards to equal educational opportunities for boys and girls, home management, health education, balanced diet, personal hygiene, family planning and child care, the use of crafts in family life, etc. The data for the study were collected with the help of an achievement test, informal interviews, and a questionnaire for seeking the opinions and reactions of different groups. The impact of the women's affairs training programme was studied in the context of changes brought about in the behaviour of women as reflected in their learning of essential knowledge and skills.
The findings of the study were: 1. A high percentage of women workers reported that most of the rural women were aware of the importance of education, yet all children were not sent to school. The rural women reported that they understood the importance of education and started sending their children to school regularly after the training programme. 2. After training, the rural women started preparing a balanced diet out of whatever raw ingradients were available to them. 3. It was observed that the training programme had a positive effect regarding personal hygiene and practice. 4. The performance of women under training on the achievement test was low as compared to that of ww and PT women. 5. There was no difference in achievement scores of working women and potential trainees. 6. It was observed by women that courses of women's affairs training programme needed to be further modified. 7. It was suggested by most of the women that the women's affairs training programme be given academic autonomy so as to allow it ample opportunities to develop and conduct the training programme more effectively.
*167. PRASAD, S.N., A Study of Social Stratification and Its Relationship with Educational Developments of Higher Secondary School Students, Ph.D. Edu., Mee U., 1986
The main objectives of this study were (i) to analyse the socio- economic status of the parents of children in urban and rural areas respectively, (ii) to find out the relationship between social stratification and variables of educational development, viz., educational achievement, educational aspiration, morale, educational adjustment and educational values, (iii) to determine the intelligence of students belonging to different castes to
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see if there existed any significant differences between them and (iv) to find out if there existed any significant difference between rural and urban students in relation to social stratification and educational variables.
A sample of 800 students representing different strata of society and income groups was randomly selected from 16 intermediate colleges situated in Allahabad. The tools used were the SES (Urabn) Scale (Kapoor), SES (Rural) Scale (Jaiswal et al.), Test of Morale (Bhatnagar), Adjustment Inventory for College Students (Sinha and Singh), Educational Values Scale (Agrawal), Intelligence Test (Jalota), and high school examination marks. The data were analysed using mean, SD, t-test, Pearson's product-moment correlation, and contingency coefficient.
The study revealed: 1. The social stratification and educational development of urban students were positively related. 2. The socio- economic status of urban students was related positively with achievements, aspiration and values. 3. The socio-economic status of rural students was positively related with aspiration and values, while their parents' occupation was related positively with achieve- ment, educational adjustment and values. 4. The caste of rural students was positively related with aspiration and educational adjustment. 5. Morale was dependent on social stratification. 6. Urban students belonging to different socio-economic status groups had better academic achievement than rural students, while the level of aspiration of the latter was more than that of the former. 7. Urban students of high castes, as compared to rural students of high castes, had higher aspirations and better academic achievement. 8. Backward- caste students of rural schools were educationally better adjusted than backward-caste students of urban schools. 9. Scheduled-caste students of urban and rural schools were not found different from each other in their educational development. 10. Intelligence was positively and significantly related to caste. 11. Upper-caste students of urban schools were intellectually better than the upper- caste students of rural schools. 12. Backward-caste students of both urban and rural schools did not differ significantly from each other in intelligence. 13. Scheduled-caste students of both urban and rural schools differed significantly in intellegence.
168. PRASAD, T., Some Personality Correlates of Con- formity, Ph.D. Psy., Bhagalpur U., 1971
The main alms of the study were (i) to explore the relationship between conformity and some relevant personality dimensions, (e.g. extraversion, neuroticism, self-esteem, social esteem, authoritarianism, and intolerance of ambiguity), and (ii) to find out the significant differences, if any, between the conformists and non- conformists on each of the personality variables studied. The main hypothesis was that there is a significant relationship between conformity and personality dimensions. Five specific hypotheses were also examined.
A proportionate random sample of 400 male postgraduate students (aged between 21 and 24 years) of the arts, science, commerce and education faculties in Bhagalpur University was selected. Age, sex and educational status were controlled. Bernberg's Human Relations Inventory, Maudsley's Personality Inventory (MPI, Short Scale), Singh's Self-Concept Inventory (Personal and Social Forms), Frenkel Brunswick et al.'s California F-scale (Hindi version by Bhushan) and Budner's Scale of Intolerance of Ambiguity (Hindi version by Bhushan) were used. Hindi versions of the tests were administered. Chi- square, Pearson's r, t-test, etc. were employed for data analysis and hypotheses testing.
The major findings were: 1. Conformity had a significantly negative relationship with extraversion and authoritarianism. It had a significantly positive relationship with neuroticism. 2. Conformists had significantly lower self-esteem as compared to non-conformists. 3. Difference in social esteem of conformists and nonconformists was not significant. 4. There was no significant relationship between conformity and intolerance of ambiguity.
169. PUTTABUDDI, R.C., A Comparative Study of General Intelligence of IX and X Grade Students of Karnataka as measured by Cattell's Culture Fair Test of Intelligence Scale-3 in relation to Their Sub Culture, Socio-Economic Status, and Caste Affiliation, Ph.D. Edu., Guj. U., 1983
The hypotheses framed for the study were: (1) The subjects of urban, semi-urban and rural areas did not differ significantly in the general intelligence dimension. (2) The subjects of different SES levels did not differ significantly on the general intelligence level. (3) The subjects of different caste groups did not differ significantly on the general intelligence dimension, (4) to (7) There exists no significant interaction between SES and subculture groups, between sub-culture and caste groups, between SES and caste groups, among subcultures. SES
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and caste groups. (8) There exists no significant difference in the performance of various groups of subjects on the Cattell Culture Fair Test of Intelligence (CCFT).
The variables used in the study were sub-culture caste, socioeconomic status and intelligence as measured by the Cattell Culture Fair Test of Intelligence (CCFT). The first three were taken as independent variables and the fourth as a dependent variable for a representative sample of IX and X grade students (M = 1243, G = 695) of Karnataka. Subjects of various blocks were selected at random at each level of subculture to obtain a representative stratified cluster sample. In the study, Cattell's Culture Fair Test of Intelligence Scale-3 (CCFT-3) Form A was used which consisted of four sub-tests series, classifications, matrices and conditions (topology). Split- half and retest reliability exceeded 0.80 in most of the samples tested. The homogeneity coefficients (N =202) were 0.68, 0.68 and 0.51 by the Spearman-Brown, Cronbach and K-R 21 formula respectively. A common socio-economic status scale for rural and urban areas, designed exclusively for Karnataka by P.G. Aaron and his associates was used. Test-retest reliability and concurrent validity of the scale were found to be 0.77 and 0.61 respectively. A three-way (3X3X5) nested factorial design with unequal replication was used in the study.
The major findings are: 1. The subjects of (i) different sub- culture groups, (ii) different socioeconomic status groups and (iii) various caste groups differed significantly on the general intelligence dimension. 2. The CCFT did not prove its culture-fairness claimed for it by Cattell. 3. There existed no significant interaction between SES and sub-culture groups, sub-culture and caste groups, socio-economic status groups and caste groups, and sub-culture, SES and caste groups.
170. RAKESH, A., Determinants of Premarital Sexual Attitudes and Behaviour among Late Adolescent Girls, Ph.D. Psy., Del. U., 1980
The objectives of the study were (i) to determine the incidence of sex-knowledge, sex-education, sources of sex education, sex attitudes, heterosexual behaviour, masturbation and homosexual behaviour, (ii) to determine the association between sex attitudes and sex knowledge, sex education, erotic exposure, sexual thoughts, interaction with the opposite sex, modernization, religiosity, neuroticism, extraversion and structural environmental factors, (iii) to determine the association between pornography and sex knowledge, sex education, sexual thoughts, modernization, religiosity, neuroticism and extraversion, (iv) to determine the association between masturbation and sexual knowledge, sex education, erotic exposure, sexual thoughts, modernization, religiosity, neuroticism and extraversion, (v) to identify a set of factors in sex attitudes and assess their relationship with sex behaviour, (vi) to determine the predictability of independent variables to sex attitudes, (vii) to determine the predictability of independent variables to sex behaviour.
The sample of study comprised 300 students from nine women's colleges of Delhi University. The tools used were (i) the Sex- Knowledge Scale, (ii) the Sex-Education Scale, (iii) the Sex-Behaviour Scale, (iv) the Sex-Attitude Scale, (v) the Modernization Scale, (vi) the Religiousity Scale, (vii) the Maudsley Personality Inventory, and (viii) a personal data schedule. The data were analysed statistically with the help of correlation, t-ratio, factor analysis and regression equation.
The major findings of the study were: 1. Heterosexual behaviour could be classified into four categories of involvement-kissing, light petting, heavy petting and coitus. There was evidence that individuals began With the most elementary form of sexual interaction and moved in a stepwise fashion to more advanced levels of involvement. 2. Almost two-thirds of the sample had never had any physical contact with the opposite sex. 3. Thirty-nine per cent of the girls had experience of masturbation. More than one third of those who masturbated felt guilty about it. 4. More than 20 per cent of the girls were against pre-marital sex. The same number expressed a view against pornographic writings being published. 5. More than one half expressed the view that masturbation was undesirable. 6. About 70 per cent were in favour of sex education in school. 7. The majority of the adolescent girls did not have correct knowledge about concepts like conception, puberty, erection, masturbation, petting. 8. The main sources of information about sex were female friends, and reading on their own. The mother was an important source in learning about menstruation and pregnancy. 9. Scientific concepts like uterus, fertilization and reproduction were learned more often through teachers. 10. Twenty-nine per cent of the girls had never received any sex education at school. 11. Sexual attitudes and behaviour were found to be significantly correlated. 12. There was a complex socio- psychological network of variables which influenced the individual's attitudes and progression through sexual involvement. 13. Pre-marital sexual atti-
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tudes and behaviour were found to be significantly related to sex knowledge, perceived sex knowledge, erotic exposure, interaction with the opposite sex, masturbation, attitude towards homosexuality, modernization, religiosity, extraversion, fathers occupation and in- come. 14. Neuroticism was not related to either sexual attitudes or behaviour. 15. The relationship of factors of sex attitudes with sexual experience revealed that sexually inexperienced girls held conservative views with respect to pre-marital sex, had lower sexual curiosity, opposed masturbation and sexual freedom, favoured religion and sexual censorship and were more prohibitive in matters of sex. 16. Modernization and erotic exposure were the most important factors in predicting sexual attitudes.
171. RAMA, R., An Investigation into the Dynamics of Student Activism Among Degree Colleges of Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Ph.D., Edu., And. U., 1978
The objective of the study was to test the following hypotheses: (1) Certain factors contribute to student activism and they are positively related to student activism, (2) The problems of welfare amenities lead to dissatisfaction among students. (3) Student activism is present in all the degree colleges. (4) There is a gap between the career aspiration of parents and students. (5) There is no dissimilarity between the opinions of lecturers, students, and student-teachers regarding factors of student activism in different institutions.
The sample for the study consisted of lecturers, students and student leaders who were selected purposively from ten different degree colleges of coastal Andhra Pradesh. The data from the sample were collected with the help of different tools administered on different samples. The Student Activism Scale was administered to 300 lecturers, 300 students and 300 student leaders. The scale had a reliability of 0.85. The Students Problems of Welfare Amenities Scale was administered to 155 lecturers and 300 student leaders. It had a reliability of 0.68. The Acts of Student Activism Scale was ad- ministered to 155 lecturers and 400 student leaders. The Acts of Student Activism Scale measured student activism against authorities, teachers, fellow students and general acts in public. It had a reliability of 0.84. The Inter-generational Career Aspirations Check List was administered on 110 male students, 100 female students and 110 parents of male and female students.
The findings of the study were: 1. There was an identity of outlook among students, student leaders and lecturers with respect to causes of student activism. 2. There were a large number of badly- managed welfare amenities which led to student activism. 3. There were similar incidents of activism among all types of institutions as revealed by the responses of student leaders and lecturers. 4. Students identified the socioeconomic factor to be the main cause of activism. 5. Lack of student classroom participation was also identified as a cause of student activism. 6. Some other factors that contributed to student activism were student politics, loss of leadership by teachers, improper methods of teaching, wrong system of examination, over-burdened curriculum and lack of library facilities. 7. The students were concerned about welfare amenities with respect to areas like health, guidance and scholarships. 8. Acts of student activism were directed more against the authorities, teachers and fellow students than the general public. 9. The gap between the aspirations of parents and the aspirations of students was a small one.
172. RAMACHANDRAN, C., A.Study of the Effects of Maternal Employment on Socio-Emotional and Educational Development of Children. Ph.D. Soc. Sc., IIT Delhi, 1981
The objectives of the- study were (i) to identify the effects of maternal employment on the socio-emotional and educational development of children, and (ii) to identify the difference between working and nonworking mothers with regard to certain aspects of their behaviour in relation to their children. The hypotheses formulated were: (1) There is no significant difference between the social maturity of children grouped on the basis of socioeconomic class, employment status of mothers and sex. (2) There is no significant difference between the self-concept of children grouped on the basis of socioeconomic class, employment status of the mothers and sex. (3) There is no significant difference between the manifest anxiety of children grouped on the basis of socioeconomic class, employment status of the mothers and sex. (4) There is no significant difference between the performance on the Language Achievement Test I (Picture Sentence Completion Test), Test II (Read and Do Test), and Test III (Sentence Completion Test), of the children grouped on the basis of socioeconomic class, employment status of the mothers and sex when, (a) the effects of intelligence are not partialled out, and (b) the effects of intelligence are
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partialled out. (5) There is no significant difference between the performance on the Arithmetic Test of children grouped on the basis of socioeconomic class, employment status of the mother and sex when (a) effects of intelligence are not partialled out, and (b) the effects of intelligence are partialled out. (6) There is no significant difference between the levels of anxiety of children of working and non-working mothers within a socioeconomic class. (7) There is no significant difference between the degree of parent-child interaction of working and non-working mothers of children within a socioeconomic class. (8) There is no significant difference between the facilities for language development at home of working and non-working mothers of boys and girls within a socioeconomic class. (9) There is no signifi- cant difference between the attitude towards play of working and non- working mothers of boys and girls within socioeconomic class.
A stratified sample of 360 students (180 boys and 180 girls) in the age group of seven and eight years, studying in class III, was selected from schools situated in the South Delhi District in the Union Territory of Delhi. Two main groups were formed on the basis of the employment status of mothers. It was divided into male and female cases and further sub-divided into cases under high, middle and low socio-economic class. The following tools were used to collect data: (i) The Social Maturity Scale (developed by the Bangalore Centre, 1975; r = 0.63), (ii) The Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale adapted in Hindi by Muralidharan and Khanna (1971; r = 0.80), (iii) the Self- Concept Inventory for the age group 5_ to 11 years developed by the Hyderabad Centre for the NCERT study (1975; r = 0.61), (iv) the Draw a Man Test of Intelligence (Phatak, 1966), (v) the Language Achievement Tests (developed by the NCERT, 1975), (a) the Picture and Sentence Matching 'rest (r=0.88), (b) the Read and Do Test (r= 0.69) and (c) the Sentence Completion Test (r=0.65), (vi) the Arithmetic Achievement Test (r=0.64) (vii) the Scale for Assessing Facilities for Language Development developed by the Kerala Centre for the NCERT study (1975; r=0.63), (viii) the Scale for Assessing Mother's Attitude towards Play (NCERT, 1975; r=0.61), (ix) the Parent-Child Interaction Scale (NCERT Centre, Bombay, 1975; r=0.64), and (x) the Scale for Assessing Mother's Anxiety for Children (developed by the author; r=0.87). A factorial design of 3X2X2 was used. The data on the subjects within each of the socioeconomic classes were subjected to one-way and twoway analysis of variance to compare groups of children as well as mothers within a socio-economic class.
The major findings were: 1. The employment of mothers had neither a positive nor a negative effect on the socio-emotional and educational development of the children. 2. Children of working mothers did not differ in any way from children of non-working mothers in terms of their social maturity, self-concept, manifest anxiety, achievement in language and achievement in arithmetic, within the high socioeconomic class. (3) Girls of working mothers within the middle socioeconomic class were found to have a more positive self-concept and lower level of manifest anxiety than those of non-working mothers. 4. Children of working mothers within the middle socio-economic class showed higher achievement in language than children of non-working mothers. 5. Children of working mothers within the low socioeconomic class were found to be more socially mature than children of non- working mothers, whereas maternal employment did not have any effect on selfconcept, manifest anxiety, achievement in language and arithmetic of children within the same socio-economic class. 6. Working mothers of girls within the high socioeconomic class had a higher level of anxiety for children as compared to non-working mothers of girls, whereas they did not differ from non-working mothers in terms of parent-child interaction, facilities for language develop- ment at home and attitude towards play. 7. Working mothers of girls within the middle socio-economic class showed a higher level of anxiety than those of the nonworking mothers of girls. 8. Non-working mothers of boys within the middle socioeconomic class were found to provide more facilities at home to children for the development of language and also to have a more positive attitude towards play than the working mothers of boys. 9. Children of mothers who had a low level of anxiety for children were found to have higher level of social maturity, a more positive self-concept, a low level manifest anxiety and higher achievement in language and arithmetic than children of mothers who had a high level of anxiety. 10. Children of mothers who interacted more with their children were found to have a higher level of social maturity, a low level of anxiety and higher achievement in language and arithmetic than the children of mothers whose interacton with their children was low. 11. Children of mothers who provided more facilities at home to children for language devel- opment and who had a more positive attitude towards play showed higher achievement in language and arithmetic than those whose mothers provided less facilities for language development. 12. Children belonging to
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the high socioeconomic class were found to have a higher level of social maturity, a lower level of anxiety and a higher level of achievement in language and arithmetic than those belonging to middle and low socioeconomic classes. 13. Children belonging to the middle socioeconomic class had a higher level of social maturity, a lower level of anxiety, a higher achievement in language and arithmetic than those belonging to the low socioeconomic class.
173. RAMANA,P.V.L.,Modernist Orientation and Role Performance of Lady Teachers of Visakhapatnam Municipal Schools, Ph.D. Soc., And. U., 1985
The objectives of the study were (i) to find out and analyse the socio-economic characteristics of lady teachers, (ii) to find out the extent of lady teachers' individual modernity and analyse its determinants, (iii) to analyse the role performance of lady teachers and its determinants, and (iv) to investigate the nature of interplay and intercorrelations among the socio-economic characteristics, modernity level and role performance of lady teachers.
A sample of 225 female teachers was selected from the municipal corporation schools of Vishakhapatnam city. Of these teachers, 123 were primary, 61 upperprimary and the remaining 41 secondary school teachers. The data were collected with the help of an interview schedule which consisted of structured questions relating to social and academic characteristics, family background, role performance, attitude about social matters, life-style, life pattern, job satisfaction, commitment to job, relationship with other members in the job, professional aspiration and achievement, and social and professional aspiration and achievement, and social and professional awareness.
The findings of the study were: 1. None of the teachers said that she was interested in the teaching profession. 2. The respondents' age, teaching experience, monthly income and religiosity made no significant contribution to the variations in the modernity of the respondents. 3. All the five background variables, namely, education, socio-economic status, religion, marital status and level of school classes taught, significantly determined levels of modernity of respondents. 4. The role performance had positive and significant correlation with modernity variables like opinion and attitude towards society, life patterns, lifestyle, and exposure to mass media. 5. Religion, caste, type of family, marital status, and level of school classes taught did not emerge significantly for their association with role performance. 6. Education was one of the variables in depicting modernization among female teachers. 7. There was significant rela- tionship between socioeconomic status and the modernity among lady teachers. 8. Religion had a positive effect on modernity. Hindus were more modem than Muslims and Christians. 9. Married teachers were more modem than the unmarried. 10. Secondary female teachers were more modern and primary female teachers. 11. Teaching experience, religion and the school classes taught emerged significantly in determining role performance. 12. Teachers with high aspirations and achievement motives depicted better role performance. 13. The level of role performance on the part of lady teachers was basically a function of modernity besides being influenced by teaching experience, professional aspirations and achievement, and nature of relations with role-set members.
*174. RANE, S.A., An Investigation into the Self- Improvement Programmes of Working Mothers in Greater Bombay with a view to Examining Increased Psychological Problems in Society, Ph.D. Edu., Bom. U., 1986
The aims of the study were (i) to identify general conditions of working mothers in Greater Bombay, (ii) to examine the relation of higher education and career of working mothers, (iii) to examine the effect of family, marital relationships, economic conditions and up- bringing of children on the socio-psychological life of working mothers, (iv) to examine the causes of socio-psychological disorders of the children of working mothers, and (v) to locate the causes of tensions, anxiety, sense of guilt in working mothers.
The method of systematic random sampling was used for the selection of the sample. The data were collected through primary and secondary sources. The tools used were a questionnaire and an interview schedule. Out of the envisaged target audience of 3000 working mothers of two different socio-economic groups, 2745 valid re- plies pertinent to the subject were collected through questionnaires and schedule, forms. The data were analysed with variables of employed mothers of two different economic strata, upper-middle and lower-middle class, using the simple percentage technique.
The major findings of the study were: 1. The married
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women worked out of economic necessity of improving their status, were habituated to work, and were careerminded. 2. A large number of women from the uppermiddle class were found dissatisfied with their job as it underrated their education, remuneration was below their standard, and chances of promotion were remote. Lower-middle class women were found dissatisfied as they were poorly paid, had unhealthy working conditions, and suffered from lack of benefits. 3. Women of both groups coming from joint families preferred to stay in a joint family, to share their income in order to lessen their responsibilities in the day-to-day work. The women from nuclear families preferred to stay in nuclear families for better facilities, better understanding and a place where their individuality was respected. 4. The main aspect of the problem of working mothers and their children was that the traditional role of the woman as a mother had not changed in spite of her increased educational qualifications. 5. Socio-psychological prob- lems among the children were due to the mother's attitude and style of working, availability or non-availability of a mother surrogate. 6. The reasons for developing maladjustment among mothers were self- centredness, over-strictness and over-indulgence, developing a sense of guilt, or being an over-submissive and retiring type. The results of neurotic disorders were located in the children. 7. The upper- middle class women showed their reluctance to educate themselves further as family responsibilities were more and there was no monetary gain. Egoistic male superiority did not permit them to do so. Lower- middle class women preferred to take further education in different vocations for monetary gain.
175. RAO. P.S., Changing Certain Attitudes in Urban Secondary School Students- A Study of Techniques and Effects, Ph.D. Edu., Mys. U., 1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to construct valid scales for measuring attitudes towards manual work, casteism and family planning, (ii) to design educational treatments employing three distinct communication strategies-verbal-visual communication, dramatized communication and a combination of the two, (iii) to study the separate and relative effectiveness of the three treatments in producing changes in attitudes in urban secondary school students, and (iv) to relate the initial attitudes and changes (gains) in the attitudes produced by the treatments to sex and SES of the subjects. The study formulated the following hypotheses: (1) Each of the educational treatments employing different communication strategies will produce a significant change in the attitudes toward manual work, casteism and family planning. (2) There will be no significant difference among the three treatments in respect of the direction and magnitude of change produced in the attitudes concerned. (3) There will be no significant difference between boys and girls, and students belonging to different groups in respect of the three attitudes or the changes produced in them by different treatments.
The sample consisted of class IX students from five schools located in Visakhapatnam. Each treatment group in each school included 30 students. Hence the total sample was 450. The investigator constructed and validated three attitude scales. The split-half reliability coefficient values were 0.848, 0.909 and 0.907 in case of attitude to manual work, casteism and family planning respectively. A 3 X 3 rotation design, with pooling of five institutional groups, and with a pre-test/post-test, was adopted for this study. Three treatment strategies and materials were developed. All the three strategies consisted of four kinds of activities each. The programme for each attitude was planned to take four sessions each of one hour; here the actual treatment took only 45 to 50 minutes and the rest of the time was used for rapport, establishing pleasant roles, summing up highlights, etc. At the end of the treatment programme on each attitude, the post-test was administered. SES data were collected on a personal data blank. Two-way ANOVA and ANACOVA were the statistical techniques used to examine the hypotheses.
The major findings of the study were: 1. All the mean differences between the final and the initial scores were positive and significant in all the nine cases. 2. All treatments produced clear attitudinal changes in the desired direction in the subjects. 3. There were no significant differences among the three treatments in respect of the effect produced in terms of gains or changes in the three attitudes. 4. There was no clear unidirectional relationship between SES and the attitudes. 5. There did not seem to be any significant difference between boys and girls on the one hand, and among the three SES groups on the other in respect of the positive changes produced in the attitudes.
176. REDDY, M.S., Students' Participation in Telengana Agitation, Ph.D. Pol. Se., Osm. U., 1978
The objective of the study was to investigate some aspects of the phenomenon of students' participation in
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agitational politics. The other objective was to find out the sociological, psychological, educational, cultural, and ideological reasons behind the participation in agitational politics.
In this study the interdisciplinary, multifactorial approach was followed. The sample of the study consisted of 554 students of both sexes drawn from different parts of Osmania University and belonging to different socioeconomic status levels. These students had participated in the Telengana movement in one way or the other. The student participation was assessed with the help of an arbitrarily developed participation scale. The students were also administered the Attitude Scale towards the Telengana movement.
The findings of the study were: 1. Very few students participated actively. Most of the students were even indifferent to the Telengana movement. 2. The rural boys showed higher scores of participation than the urban ones. The income level and educational background of their parents did not have any relationship to the degree of participation. 3. Boys, however, showed higher scores of participation than the girls. 4. The students' participation in the Telengana movement was significantly related to the degree of awareness of local political factors and personal problems faced by the students. 5. Students with both high conservative and high radical scores appeared to have participated more. 6. The multiple correlation coefficient combining different factors also did not show significance level. 7. Analysis of the responses of the student leaders to the interview schedule showed that even these leaders were not very clear as to the causes of the movement, what precipitated it and the extent of student participation. 8. The perception of adults about the agitation also showed that the students did not have any conviction or ideological commitment. 9. There was no relationship between students' participation in the Telengana agitation and sociological, psychological and economic factors. There did exist some relationship between participation of students and the educational factor. 10. Above all, local political awareness and emotional problems were more related to the agitation. 11. Important contributing factors were discrimination in services, lack of cultural identity between people of the region, a feeling of neglect of economic development, factionalism among the student leaders, and weakening of the congress monolith.
177. REDDY. N.B., A Study of the Performance of Children on the Adapted Version of Wechsler Intelligence Scale with Special Reference to the Socioeconomic Background, Ph.D. Edu. SVU, 1983
The main objectives of the study were (i) to develop an adapted version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children, and (ii) to study the relationship between intelligence and other factors such as age socio-economic status and birth order. The hypotheses formulated were: (1) Intelligence increases with increase in age. (2) Better socioeconomic status leads to better intelligence. (3) First-born children have better intelligence than second-born and third-born. (4) Boys get better scores in the non-verbal tests or performance tests than girls. (5) Girls show better performance in the verbal tests than boys. (6) Children's age and socioeconomic status have a significant influence on intelligence. (7) Socio-economic status and birth order have a significant influence on children's intelligence. (8) Birth order and age have a significant influence on the intelligence of children.
The preliminary try-out of the test was carried out on a sample of 44 children covering the age-range 5 + to 15+. Item analysis procedure was carried out and the difficulty value and discrimination index for the items included in the test were calculated for the purpose of selecting the items for the final test. A multistage stratified random sampling procedure was used in the selection of the sample for the final study. From classes I to XI, children were selected at random numbering 60 from every class. Thus the total sample consisted of 660 students, 330 from rural areas and 330 from urban areas; 330 boys and 330 girls.
The main findings of the study were- 1. As age increased, intelligence of the children showed marked improvement. 2. The higher the socio-economic status, the higher was the intelligence. 3. Children who were first born obtained better intelligence scores than the second-born and third-born children. 4. Boys proved better than girls in the nonverbal or performance tests. 5. Girls obtained better scores than boys in the verbal tests. 6. The interaction between socioeconomic status and age on the intelligence of children was highly significant in both the verbal and performance scale of WISC. 7. The interaction between birth order and socioeconomic status on children's intelligence was moderately significant. 8. Age and birth order interaction on intelligence was not at all significant both at .05 level, as well as at .01 level.
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178. RIZVI, S.A.H., A Study of Attitudes towards Reli- gious Education in Relation to Certain Value Orien- tations, Ph.D. Psy., AMU, 1986
The objective of the investigation was to study students' attitudes towards religious education in relation to the value system and to know whether they regarded religious education as useful in life.
The data were collected from 200 postgraduate students of the Hindu and Muslim communities studying in Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, with the help of the following instruments: (1) Likert type attitude scale entitled "Attitude Towards Religious Education Scale" constructed by the investigator; this scale has yielded satisfactory reliability and validity indices; (2) Rajmanickam's Religious Attitude Scale; (3) Kilby's Way to Live Scale; and (4) Ansari's Value Orientation Scale. The data were classified with reference to sex, religion and socio-economic status. The relationship between different measures was studied employing product moment correlation. The significance of the difference between the scores obtained by different groups was ascertained by the help of chi-square and t- tests.
The major findings of the study were: 1. A majority of students held moderate attitudes towards religious education, but the students of the Hindu and Muslim religious groups were found to hold different attitudes towards religious education. 2. Favourable attitudes towards religious education were found to be associated with such values as helpfulness, preserving traditions and adaption to nature. In this respect sex, socioeconomic status and religious group differences were not found. 3. Irrespective of the difference in their sex, socioeconomic status, and religion, students held similar views with respect to the association between attitudes towards religious education and conservative liberal and scientific-fatalistic value dimension.
179. SAIKIA. D., Sociology of Elementary Education in Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Ph.D. Arts, Gau. U., 1981
The main aim of the research was to study the sociology of elementary education in Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
Available records, literature, etc. were critically studied. The development of elementary education in India and in Khasi And Jaintia Hills was traced. Various aspects of elementary education like the curriculum, training of teachers, wastage and stagnation, and finance and administration were critically studied. A survey about wastage and stagnation in nine primary schools of Khasi Hills district, Shillong, during 1965-66 to 1969-70 was also conducted. Certain suggestions were given for making elementary education more effective.
The study revealed: 1. Elementary education, as it existed, was the result of sincere efforts made for more than a century by missionaries, educationists of India, the intelligentsia and enlightened persons of Khasi and Jaintia Hills. Behind them were numerous devoted and sincere teachers, social welfare workers, and people from different categories. 2. An earnest effort was made by the government as well as by voluntary agencies for the progress of educational activities. 3. Though there was progress and expansion in respect of different aspects of elementary education in Khasi and Jaintia Hills, there were various limitations. 4. Among the scheduled tribes the number of boys was larger than the number of girls studying in primary and junior basic schools. 5. About 60.3% of pupils enrolled in class 'A' dropped out in the selected primary schools. 6. Poverty, ignorance and social backwardness of the people were mostly responsible for wastage and stagnation. 7. To make elementary education effective and successful a new strategy was required. Better planning and greater human efforts were the basic needs.
*180. SAINI, Y., Student Politics in an Indian Univer- sity, Ph.D. Soc., DHSGVV, 1978
The major objective of the investigation was to study the personal as well as socioeconomic status background of student leaders, their exposure to mass media, their values, attitudes and aspirations, their attitude towards teachers and authorities, their perception of an ideal representative of students, their perception of the role and need of a students' union, and procedures followed by them in settling grievances.
The sample of the study consisted of 257 student leaders, drawn from different bodies under Sagar University of M.P. recognized to represent students. These bodies were the departmental associations, the cultural associations, the youth wings of political parties, the university students' union, and the hostel unions. The
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data were collected through an interview schedule, through keen observation of the student leaders' activities, by observing the meetings and demonstrations led by the student leaders, and through informal personal interviews with the student leaders. Simple statistical techniques of mean, averages, percentages, etc. were utilized to analyse the data.
The findings of the study were: 1. Most of the student leaders were found to come from a high SES background and from agricultural families. They were in the age group of 20-22 years, generally professing the Hindu religion and belonging to the Brahmin caste. A special feature of the students' union in the university was that the executive posts were the monopoly of local students, who had taken arts or science as their course of study in the university. 2. Most of the student leaders were reared in urban families, consisting, on an average, of five or more family members. Their mother-tongue was Hindi and their parents were literate. 3. Student leaders' exposure to the mass media was quite insignificant. They were not fully aware of the political institutions of the country. 4. In their values, attitudes and aspirations, it was found that most of the student leaders occupied a middle position in the tradition-modernity continuum. While leaders with a rural background were found to retain traditional values, more and more leaders were tending towards modern values. In the direction of nation-building, their attitude was favourable towards economic welfare, and agricultural and social welfare. Their attitude towards education was utilitarian as they were found to conceive education as a means to get a job. 5. Student leaders were found to look upon their teachers with esteem. They perceived their teachers as strict disciplinarians in the class and friends outside. 6. The vice-chancellor was found to be the most blamed category among the authorities by the student leaders. They expected him to act in their favour. 7. In terms of welfare, the student leaders were found to think about themselves first, about their parents next, and about the nation last. They were found to aspire for jobs which provided an opportunity to use special ability and aptitude. However, they did not rule out the aid of influential persons in getting good jobs. 8. The student leaders were found to look for a few qualities in a candidate if they happened to elect him as their representative. These were the qualities of organization, oratorical skill and popularity among students. They were observed to project themselves as well-behaved, brilliant and disciplined. 9. Student leaders strongly favoured the existence of a students' union in the university. Concerning the objectives of the students' union, the student leaders were found to feel that it should work for the overall development of the student community. 10. Very few student leaders were found to know about all the authorities in the university with whom they had to deal in relation to their activities. 11. The functioning of the students' union tended to be a one-man-show. Student leaders were found to openly recognize the influence of local goondas on the students' union. One-fifth of the student leaders had a political nexus. 12. In the context of settling the student issues, the researcher found different approaches followed by the leaders. Here, having assured an aggrieved party, a typical student leader would present himself very smartly in front of the vicechancellor. The influential student leader would settle comfortably in a seat and begin dictating terms in a characteristic tobacco-chewer tone. These practices had an edge over the normal and set procedure of grievance communication. Student leaders belonging to different educational backgrounds were found to use different procedures to settle grievances. While the student leaders belonging to science and technology disciplines preferred a logical way, those belonging to arts and commerce disciplines were found to follow an aggressive path and advocated open strikes and demonstrations.
*181. SALODKAR, M.P., A Comparative Sociometric Study of Leadership Choice Tendencies of Certain Social Organizations as Related to Education, Ph.D. Edu., Nag. U., 1987
The major objectives of the study were (i) to investigate the leadership choice tendencies of certain social organizations as related to education, (ii) to find out if certain social organizations as related to education differed among themselves in respect of their leadership choice tendencies, (iii) to find out whether the leaders of social. organizations differed from non-leaders in respect of their leadership choice tendencies, (iv) to find out if there was any significant difference between male members and female members of certain social organizations in respect of their leadership choice tendencies, and (v) to investigate the closeness of relationship among leadership choice tendencies of certain social organizations.
The sample for the study consisted of the members of executive bodies of 24 social organizations related to education from eight districts of Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. The tool used for the study was a socio-
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metric scale developed by the researcher. It was a kind of normative survey research. Statistical techniques used for the analysis and interpretation of data included t-test, analysis of variance and correlation.
The findings were: 1. The social organizations as related to education did not hold similar leadership choice tendencies. The leadership choice tendencies of all the social organizations under study were not observed to be the same. 2. In general, the members of the social organizations agreed to the leadership choice tendencies. 3. The leadership choice tendencies of leaders and non-leaders did not differ. 4. Male and female members did not differ in their leadership choice tendencies. 5. In general, the clusters of leadership choice tendencies were not located. Simple observation of intercorrelations indicated that there could be one cluster of 14 leadership choice tendencies.
*182. SALOMN, A.K., A Study of the Problems of Foreign Based Indian Students of Public Schools, Ph.D. Edu., HPU, 1985
The major objectives were (i) to identify the problems being faced by the students whose parents were settled abroad and who were studying in Indian public schools, (ii) to compare the problems of Indian students and foreign-based Indian students studying in public schools, (iii) to compare the problems of male and female students studying in public schools, (iv) to compare the problems of foreign-based Indian students studying in public schools and public-type schools, and (v) to study whether the problems faced by the students whose parents were settled in advanced countries and of those whose parents lived in developing countries were different.
The sample consisted of 226 students who were above 12 years of age. The tools used for data collection consisted of a socio-economic schedule specially prepared, a problem inventory and T.A.T. by Uma Choudhry.
The major findings were : 1. Foreign-based Indian public school students had all the 15 more developed needs as compared to India- based public school students. On all the 15 personality needs the students of advanced countries had more developed needs than the students of developing nations. All the 15 needs were more developed in the students of public schools than in the students of public-type schools. The female students had less developed personality needs than male students. 2. More problems were faced by the girl students than the boys whose parents lived in foreign countries. 3. On the whole it was observed that the foreign-based Indian public school students were more worried than India-based public school students, the female students faced more problems than the male students, and the students of public schools had more problems than the students of public-type schools. More problems were faced by the students whose parents were settled in advanced countries than those students whose parents lived in underdeveloped countries. However, a clear picture of the areas could not be obtained.
183. SANTHA K.C., Changing Role of Women in Indian Society and its Implications on Education, Ph.D. Edu., Madras U., 1986
The major objectives of the research work were to study (i) the status of Indian women in its historical perspective, (ii) the changing role of Indian women in economic, social, cultural, religious, political and educational spheres, (iii) the opinion of women about the changing role of women, (iv) the opinion of men about the changing role of women, and (v) the educational implications of the changing role of Indian women.
The sample of the study consisted of 1050 women and 100 men chosen from different walks of life. The tools used to collect the data were questionnaire and interview schedule. The reliability of the questionnaire was worked out by the test-retest method and the coefficient of consistency was worked out to be 0.84. Content validity was established through jury opinion.
The changing role of women as perceived by women in the five spheres, namely, economic, educational, social, cultural, and religious were indicated in detail. Some of these were: 1. Women had a more positive attitude towards their own role in the cultural sphere than men. 2. Men and women in Indian society had similar attitudes towards women's role in the religious sphere. 3. Men had a more positive attitude towards the role of women in the economic, political and social spheres than women. Women had a more positive attitude towards their role in the educational field than men. 4. Women did not differ in their attitude irrespective of their age and attitude in the economic sphere. 5. In the social sphere, women graduates had a more significantly positive attitude than women nongraduates. 6. Women above 30 years had a higher positive attitude than women below 30 years. in the cultural sphere. 7. Education did not influence the attitude of women regarding their role in the cultural sphere. Education and age did
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not influence the attitude of women in the religious sphere. 8. Women above 30 years had a higher positive attitude than women below 30 years in the political sphere. But education did not influence the attitude of women in the political sphere. 9. In the educational sphere, age did not influence women's attitudes but graduate women had a higher positive attitude than nongraduates.
The implications of the study are: 1. Men do expect women to assist and to share the responsibilities in as well as outside the home. Therefore, there should not be any differentiation between girls and boys or men and women in receiving education.
184. SAWHNEY, K.K., A Factorial Study of the Value System of Educated Youth in an Indian Locale, Ph.D. Edu., Jammu U., 1984
The aims of the study were (i) to prepare and standardize a value test consisting of eight values which may not yield the scores of ipsative nature, (ii) to study the distribution of scores of all the eight values, (iii) to compare the mean scores of eight values of the different groups, (iv) to compare the mean scores of boys and girls with high and low intelligence and high and low SES, and (v) to isolate the dominant factors of the value system of the four groups separately.
On the basis of the opinions of experts, eight values were selected, namely, social, political, economic, moral, knowledge, health, recreation, and aesthetic. A value test consisting of eight values which may not yield ipsative scores was prepared and standardized. The test-retest method was employed for the estimation of reliability coefficients of all the eight sub-tests separately. The composite reliability was also calculated by applying the Mosier Formula which came to be 0.93. Apart from this, the researcher prepared an SES questionnaire. The Culture Free Intelligence Test by R.B. Cattell and others was used for measuring intelligence.
The main findings were: 1. The distribution of scores of both boys and girls of TDC and PUC in all eight values deviated from the normal. 2. The PUC boys exhibited significantly higher mean values in health and aesthetic values than TDC boys. TDC girls showed higher mean scores than boys in social and aesthetic values. 3. The high- intelligent boys of PUC exhibited significantly higher mean scores than the high-intelligent girls of PUC in social, political, economic values. The lowintelligent boys of PUC exhibited significantly lower mean scores than the low-intelligent PUC girls in social, political, economic and recreation values. The highintelligent girls of TDC showed significant differences in social, moral, knowledge and aesthetic values than the TDC high-intelligent boys. The low- intelligent girls of TDC attached more importance to knowledge value than boys. 4. PUC boys of high SES exhibited higher mean values than PUC girls of high SES in social and recreation values. PUC boys of high SES showed higher mean scores in recreation values than girls of high SES. TDC girls of high SES showed a significant difference in social, economic, moral and knowledge values than the low SES boys of TDC. 5. Two dominant factor loadings emerged for all the four groups. In case of PUC boys, the factors were 'Aesthetic Recreation Factor' and 'Politicseconomic Factors'. In case of PUC girls the first and second factors were 'Moral-cum-Knowledge Factor' and 'Aesthetic Creation Factor. In case of TDC boys two factors extracted were 'Political-cum-Knowledge Factor' and 'Aesthetic-Recreation Factor'. In case of TDC girls the two factors were 'Moral-cum-Knowledge Fac- tor'and 'Aesthetic-Recreation Factor'.
*185. SAXENA, S.C., A Developmental Study. of Psy- chological Characteristics of Student Leaders, Ph.D. Edu., Jod. U., 1987
The major objectives of the inquiry were (i) to study personality characteristics of student leaders at primary, middle, higher secondary and college level, (ii) to study developmental trends in reactions to frustration among leaders, (iii) to study the nature of perception of the school environment among student leaders, and (iv) to study the nature of family syntality among student leaders.
The study was a correlational type of field research using the cross sectional approach for data collection and hypotheses testing. The study was conducted on a sample of 200 leaders, 50 each selected from all stages, and 260 non-leaders, 120 each at the primary, middle and higher secondary stages, and 120 non-leaders at the college level. The data were collected by administering the tools to groups of 25 to 30 subjects each. The tools used for collecting the data were ESPQ, HSPQ and 16 PF Questionnaire, Indian adaptation of Reasoning Picture Frustration Study, Family Syntality Scale I of Cattell's Hindi adaptation by Joshi and Yadav, and School Environment Scale constructed by the investigator. The significance of the difference between leaders
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and non-leaders for each personality characteristic was seen by calculating the critical ratio. Personality correlates of reactions to frustration and environmental factors were computed by the product- moment correlation. Kendall's tau coefficient and coefficient of concordance were attempted to analyse the degree of relationship among the reactions to frustration across the four educational levels.
The major findings of the study were: 1. Primary school leaders were characterized by significant personality correlates in contrast to non-leaders. 2. There were no personality correlates between leader and non-leader groups of subjects at the middle school level. 3. Leaders showed very limited personality disposition to reactions to frustration at the higher secondary stage. 4. A larger number of significant personality correlates developed at the college level only. 5. Primary school leaders were less bright, obedient, sober and internally restrained. 6. Middle school leaders were outgoing, emotionally stable, inactive, assertive, dominant and aggressive. 7. Higher secondary school leaders were outgoing, emotionally stable, excitable, venturesome, tough-minded, vigorous and confident. 8. College leaders were outgoing, intelligent, expedient, rule-evading, tough-minded, self reliant and realistic. 9. Primary and middle school leaders had a favourable attitude towards parents. Higher secondary school leaders did not differ significantly from non-leaders. College level leaders' reactions towards parents were cool and unfavourable. 10. Primary school leaders' reactions towards school environment were favourable, middle school leaders perceived all areas of school environment as less favourable than non-leaders, and higher secondary school and college level leaders' perception of the school environment did not significantly differ from non-leaders. 11. The middle school leaders were most outgoing. However, this outgoingness lessened at the secondary school and college levels. 12. Leaders of colleges were the most Intelligent. 13. The ego strength increased from Primary school level to college level. 14. Excitability was more in the middle school leaders than in the primary school leaders. This factor was not operative at the college level. 15. College leaders were the most operative and the primary school leaders were the least operative. 16. College leaders were most happy-go-lucky followed by middle, secondary and primary school leaders. 17, College leaders were more expedient than primary school leaders who were conscientious. The leaders of secondary schools were more conscientious and less expedient than middle school leaders. 18. Primary school leaders were most shy, whereas the college leaders were most venturesome. Primary school leaders were tenderminded whereas college leaders were tough- minded.
186. SAXENA, U.,.Psychodynamics of Caste Prejudices among Teachers, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U.. 1975
The objectives were (i) to study the caste prejudices among the higher secondary teachers of KAVAL towns of U.P., (ii) to study comparatively the caste prejudices prevalent among male teachers and female teachers, (iii) to study whether the teachers belonging to different age groups and SESs differed significantly in respect of their cast prejudices, (iv) to study the psychodynamic aspect of their prejudices, and (v) to conduct an experiment for changing the prejudiced attitudes of the teachers. The hypotheses were: (1) There is a greater amount of tension between higher castes and lower castes between Brahmins and Chamars). (2) There is more rivalry and bitter competition and more prejudiced feelings and attitudes among different higher castes (i.e. between Brahmins and Kayasthas). (3)The social distance is greatest between the highest caste-group and the lowest caste-group. (4) The teachers have favourable attitudes towards their own caste-group and unfavourable attitudes towards other cast-groups. (5) Conservative and liberal teachers differ in respect of their defence mechanisms such as rationalization, projection and dis- placement. (6) The male and female teachers do not significantly differ in respect of cast prejudices, (7) Age does not play any part in the formation of prejudices and younger teachers do not significantly differ in respect of their prejudices.
The sample consisted of 1000 teachers (500 females and 500 males) belonging to different cities of (J.P. The stratified random sampling technique was used for selecting the sample. The data were collected with the help of a questionnaire and opinionnaire developed by the investigator. The data were analysed with the help of chi-square and percentages.
The findings were: 1. Social distance was minimum among various higher castes and among lower castes. It was the greatest between- higher castes at the extreme and lower castes at the extreme. The impact of variables sex and age was significant in many cases but income had no significant impact. The maximum social distance was observed in the case of category to close kinship by marriage. (2) Male teachers were found to be less prejudiced than their female counterparts. (3) Negative
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caste stereo-types were present in the cognition of most of the teachers. (4) There was a significant change in the attitudes of the prejudiced teachers when they were given social reinforcement. (5) Highly prejudiced (conservative) and less prejudiced. (liberal) teachers were found to be significantly different in rationalizing, projecting and displacing their prejudices. Prejudiced teachers used these defence mechanisms in a greater degree than the unprejudiced ones.
187. SAY,A.,Process of Socialization and Its Impact on Personality Formation in a Tribal Village of Chotanagpur, Ph.D. Arts, Ran.U., 1986
The main aims of the study were (i) to examine the impact of socialization and culture on personality of adolescent children in the Munda tribe of Chotanagpur plateau, (ii) to study their personality formation microscopically, and (iii) to examine the personality traits, stress and storms or tension and conflict and personality adjustment of Munda children in their society and Culture.
An inter-disciplinary and psycho-anthropological approach was followed. Published and unpublished works, participant observation, observation and interview methods were mainly used. Sixty Munda adolescents (30 boys and 30 girls) were interviewed separately to study their level of aspirations or ambitions. An interview schedule was prepared and used.
Some of the major conclusions were: 1. Munda social, cultural, economic and geographical environments in which they were living were rich. They were mostly busy in meeting their need for two meals. 2. There was no question of much stress and storms, tension and conflict and problems of adjustment. 3. Socialization processes played an effective role in personality formation and culture transmission, and shaped their personality according to their social and cultural norms which led them towards proper adjustment in their society and culture, 4. Munda's social and cultural organizations were fast changing. 5. Techniques of weaning and feeding played an important role in the child's personality formation. 6. Family structure, family size, parental inter-personal relationship, relationship with other family members, etc. were important as personality determinants. Most adolescents were submissive, sociable, enthusiastic, rigid, emotionally stable and had a low level of aspirations and emotions. 7. There was slight variation in personality characteristics between non- Christian and Christian adolescents.
188. SHAH, K., Socio-economic Background of Primary School Teachers and Job-satisfaction: A Sociological Study, Ph.P Soc., Kashi V., 1982
The main objectives of the study were (i) to study the socio-economic conditions of primary school teachers, (ii) to study their educational status, (iii) to identify the motivating factors, (iv) to inquire into their attitude towards their job, (v) to find out problems they faced in their profession, and (vi) to inquire into their job satisfaction.
The sample was drawn from 155 primary schools of nine wards of Varanasi Corporation area. On the basis of stratified random sampling technique, out of 78 primary schools (managed either privately or by the corporation) 525 teachers were selected for the study. Out of these 525 teachers, 475 teachers could be interviewed. Data were analysed with the help of simple percentage.
Some of the major findings of the investigation were: 1. Due to the impact of democratization the traditional hold of the upper castes over the educational system was gradually diminishing. Still, a majority of the teachers belonged to the Brahmin caste (38.1 per cent). The second position was of Kayasthas (19.6 per cent). 2. Generally the respondents belonged to the lowermiddle class or lower class. The educational status of the family was also very ordinary. 3. Sixty percent of the women teachers belonged to joint families and 663 per cent of the women teachers preferred joint families. The average number of members in a family was 6.7. 4. The majority of the women teachers belonged to the Hindu religion. Next in serial order were Muslim, Christian and Sikh teachers. All of them observed reli- gious rituals and rites regularly. This indicated the hold of religion in spite of various forces of modernization. 5. Most of the women teachers (88.2 per cent) were satisfied with their job. 6. Most of the teachers were dissatisfied with their low pay scales. Still, they wished to remain in their job. They liked their job. 7. Teachers reported that there were very flew opportunities for professional growth, and other facilities like pension, residence and medical benefits were not provided. 8. Almost all the women teachers had a sense of satisfaction in performing the dual role of a housewife and a teacher. 9. Though the women teachers were dissatisfied with the low pay scales of primary school teachers-
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they liked the job because the teaching profession traditionally commanded high esteem. 10. The teachers discussed the problems related to their job. Prominent among these were low salaries, lack of different kinds of physical facilities, poor buildings, and poor teaching material.
*189. SHAIKH, F.L., Educational Progress of Muslim Pupils in Ahmednagar City, 1947 to 1977, Ph.D. Edu., Poona U., 1981
This is a historical study. The researcher first briefly reviewed the history of Muslim education and then put forth his views about education as a means of social development. The researcher also undertook a comparative review of education of Hindus and Muslims in Ahmednagar during the period 1947-77 in relation to primary, secondary and higher education. He reviewed the development of the Remand Home, girl's education, and occupational education, and undertook a case study of Chand Sultana High School, Ahmednagar.
Prior to the seventeenth century, Ahmednagar was ruled by Muslim kings for over 300 years. Although the rulers were benevolent, education remained limited to the elite. It did not percolate to the masses. This state of affairs continued till 1854. Disappearance of Muslim rule created problems for the Muslim community which consisted of several strata of the society based on political, social and economic conditions. Muslim educational institutions like Maktabs and Madrasas came to grief and with the passing of time these institutions decayed almost completely. At these places the holy Quran and the rudiments of religious performances were taught. With the advent of the British the entire Muslim life suffered politically, socially and economically and went into backwardness and retardation. The general trends which were set up in the field of education after Wood's Despatch of 1853 and by subsequent commissions were considered irreligious by Muslims and they remained engrossed in their own fantasies. There were no worthwhile leaders like Gopalkrishna Gokhale among the Muslims to lead the community. Even charitable efforts did not come forth vigorously and materially until 1939. Moreover, the problem of the medium of instruction for Muslims, i.e. whether it should be Marathi or Urdu, became a controversy. After independence there was some awareness among Muslims about education and the well-to-do started sending their children to English medium schools while the less well-to-do Muslims sent their children to Marathi and Urdu medium schools. However, the general Muslim population was not able to advance in education due to poverty and social backwardness. With the leadership of some young people in the community, the Chand Sultana High School was started in 1937. But the situation with regard to education and the employment of Muslims had not brightened. In 1977, in a population of 28,000 Muslims only 266 were employed in government or semi-government Jobs, of whom only eleven were women. Forty-eight out of 266 were in the teaching profession and 85 in government jobs. At that time there were only 101 boys who were matriculates, 42 graduates, 12 postgraduates and three in the legal profession. As against this, 48 girls were matriculates, ten were graduates, and one a medical practitioner. The municipality conducted only a few schools for the Muslim community.
190. SHAIKH, R.A., A Study of Life Style of Slum Dwellers and its Relation with Education, Ph.D. Edu., MSU, 1983
The major objectives of the study were (i) to study the life of slum dwellers of Kisanwadi of Baroda. in terms of their social, economic, health and occupational conditions, (ii) to study the educational status of the parents and children of Kisanwadi, (iii) to study their awareness and utilization of educational opportunities provided to them, and (iv) to study their educational and vocational expectations and their attitude towards education.
The sample was obtained by the stratified random sampling technique. It included 25 families with father, mother and one child from each family. The research tools comprised Questionnaires and interview schedules.
The major findings were: 1. The percentage of school-going children in the age group 6-14 was 72.33. 2. Uneducated females outnumbered the uneducated males. 3. About 27 percent of males and 5.3 6percent of females had received education upto the secondary level 4. Only 2 3.94 percent of the total population were earning members. About 56 per cent of males were employed, 13 per cent were self- employed, 24 per cent worked on daily wages, and the remaining were unemployed. About 93 per cent of the women were unemployed, 2.31 per cent were in service, 1.58 per cent were self-employed and 3.26 per cent were on daily wages. 5.
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Gambling, drinking, prostitution and juvenile delinquency were widespread among the slum dwellers. 6. Parents of 22 out of the 25 families could not get education themselves but they had a positive attitude towards education 7. The children of 13 families had got education and they showed a positive attitude towards education. The children of six families had received education but showed a negative attitude towards education. 8. Some of the reasons for not receiving education were helping parents in their work, minding younger children at home, and poverty. The parents engaged their children in their family craft and did not see any purpose in education.
*191. SHANKAR, U., Psycho-Social Correlates of the Behavioural Dynamics of Juvenile Delinquency, Ph.D. Psy., Jiw. U., 1984
The major objective of this study was to investigate the influence of differences in socioeconomic status, area (rural/urban), intelligence, and home environment on the delinquent behaviour of students.
The sample of the study consisted of 600 delinquent and 600 non- delinquent male students studying in different higher secondary schools of the Agra region. Selection of boys with delinquent and non-delinquent behaviour in educational institutions was made with the help of a preliminary list prepared with the help of principals, class teachers and subject teachers. Four main criteria of delinquent behaviour were applied: theft of property or damage to it, acts ignoring authority, physical offences including sex offence, and behaviour disorders. The relevant data were collected with the help of the Socio-Economic Status Scale of S.P. Kulshreshtha and the Intelligence Test of M.C. Joshi. A personal interview schedule was used to determine the home environment of students under study and the case study method was utilized to diagnose the circumstances leading to delinquent behaviour. F-ratio chi-square and correlational matrices were computed to analyse the data.
The findings of study were: 1. An inverse relationship was observed between socioeconomic status and incidence of delinquent behaviour. The maximum incidence of delinquent behaviour was found in the lowest socioeconomic status groups. 2. Urban environment was observed to be a potent factor in determining delinquent behaviour. 3. Low intelligence level was found to be a very important determinant of delinquency. More delinquents were found in the low-IQ category than in high-IQ category. 4. Lack of proper socialization in the home environment was observed to lead to faulty development of personality which was found to lead a child to becoming delinquent. 5. Out of various important sources of home environment responsible for delin- quent behaviour, overleniency as a factor was found to be at the top, followed by frustrating home environment and conflicting home environment.
192. SHARIQUE, A.S., A Study of Secondary School Teachers' Educational Viewpoint in relation to their Values, Attitudes and Preferences for Political Ideologies, Ph.D. Edu., AMU, 1984
The objective of the study was to investigate educational viewpoints of secondary school teachers and their relation to teachers' values, attitudes and preferences for political ideologies.
The sample of the study consisted of 251 male and 79 female secondary school teachers. The educational viewpoint and political ideologies of teachers were measured by the tools constructed by the investigator. Ojha's Measurement of Values Scale and Verma's Attitude Towards Teaching Scale were employed as measures of teachers' values and attitude towards teaching respectively. Chi-square and t-tests were employed to determine the significance of the difference between the means of scores of the compared groups. Productmoment correlation was employed to determine the relationship between the different variables.
The major findings of the study were: 1. Most of the teachers had a progressive outlook on different aspects of education like alms, methods, pupil control, policy of promotion, need for inservice education. 2. Female teachers held more progressive views than male teachers regarding the aims of education, pupil control, policy of promotion, and in-service education. The difference in the viewpoints of male and female teachers regarding methods of teaching was not significant. 3. Science teachers held more progressive views than arts teachers regarding policy of promotion and in-service education, but their views in other areas were similar. 4. Teachers' educational viewpoints were found to be unrelated to their political, aesthetic and economic values. Progressive teachers were found to be more theoretical and social-value oriented than traditional teachers. 5. Teachers' educational viewpoints were found to be unrelated to their attitude towards work activities in
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teaching and towards principals' functioning style. However the progressive, mixed and traditional teachers differed significantly in their attitude towards economic and psychological rewards in teaching and their attitude towards pupils. 6. Progressive and traditional teachers were found to favour leftist and rightist political ideologies respectively.
193. SHARMA, R.D., Effect of Education and Employment on the Value-Systems and Marital Role Preferences of Boys and Girls in Early Twenties with Regard to Family Planning, Ph.D. Psy., Agra U., 1984
The objectives of this study were to determine (i) the projected role of young men and women as husbands and wives in their married life. (ii) their values regarding family planning. The hypothesis was that there will be no significant difference among different groups on the marital role and value systems regarding family planning.
This study was conducted on postgraduate students of Delhi University and industrial workers employed in garment and electrical goods factories in the Union Territory of Delhi. The subjects were taken from both sexes. All subjects were unmarried and in the age range of 20-24 years. The selection of the sample was done by simple random sampling method. The data were collected on 586 subjects in both the pilot and main study. In this study, three tools-Personal Bio-data Schedule, Marital Role Preference Scale, and Value System Scale, were used. The chi-square test was used for comparing the four groups with each other on all the variables.
The main findings were: 1. Young men and women considered that 'sharing joys and sorrows with the life partner' was the most important factor which motivated them to enter married life. Leading a happy and peaceful life was considered as the most important factor by students which induced them to accept family planning, while workers considered 'providing good education and nutritive food', as the most important factor for accepting family planning in their married life. 2. Students were more egalitarian than industrial workers and females were more egalitarian than males on the Marital- Role Preference Scale. 3. Males considered avoidance of pregnancy as the most important factor for accepting family planning in their married life while females did not agree with males on this.
194. SHARMA, R.R., A Comparative Study of PsychoSocial Characteristics of Activist and Alienated Students at Graduate Level, D.Phil. Edu., Garh U., 1983
The main aims of the study were (i) to assess and examine the psycho- social characteristics of activist and alienated students, and (ii) to compare activist and alienated students with reference to their psycho-soclal characteristics. The study hypothesized that there would be no significant difference between activist and alienated students with reference to their personality needs, personal values, educational aspirations and socio-economic status.
The study was an exploratory investigation based on comparative design. It was conducted on 533 male students selected through stratified random sampling technique, representing various faculties of three colleges of three types-government, private, and constituent under the territorial jurisdiction of Garhwal University. The data were collected through six tools: (i) Student Activism Scale, (ii) Student Alienation Scale (to identify activist and alienated students), (iii) Tripathi Personal Preference Schedule, (iv) Personal Value Questionnaire, (v) Educational Aspiration Scale, and (vi) Socio- economic Status Scale. The data were analysed by using chi-square and critical ratio.
The major findings of the study were: 1. There was a significant difference between activist and alienated students on deference, exhibition, autonomy, affiliation, abasement and endurance needs. 2. No significant difference was found between the two groups (activist and alienated) on achievement, order, intraception, succorance, dominance, nurturance, change, heterosexuality and aggression needs. 3. The activist students displayed higher needs for exhibition, autonomy and affiliation than the alienated, whereas the alienated students showed higher needs for deference, abasement and endurance than their activist counterparts. 4. There was no significant difference between the activist and the alienated students on their personal values as well as educational aspirations. 5. The socio- economic status of the activist students was higher than that of the alienated students.
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*195. SHARMA, R., A Comparative Study of the Children of the Working and Non-working Mothers (A psychological Study), Ph.D. Edu., M. Sukh. U., 1986
The main objectives of the study were (i) to compare the personality factors, total adjustment, study habits and the attitudes of the children towards their parents, and (ii) to study scholastic achievement and self-concept of the children of working and non- working mothers.
The sample of the study was 600 (equal proportion) children of working and non-working mothers. The tools used for the study were: Adjustment Inventory for School Students, Swatva-Bodh Parikshan, Children's Report of Parental Behaviour, Test of Study Habits and Attitudes, and Children Personality Questionnaire. The study of scholastic achievement was made on the basis of annual results.
The major findings of the study were: 1. From the qualitative point of view of significant difference at the adjustment level was found in the children of both the groups. 2. The self-concept level of the children of working mothers was found to be more than that of the children of non-working mothers. 3. In comparison with the children of non-working mothers, the children of working mothers were found to be better in concentration and confidence. 4. Although the study habits and attitudes of the children of both the groups were found to be very poor, their school achievement was high. 5. In comparison with the children of working mothers, the children of non-working mothers were found to be more excited, anxious, tender-hearted, sensitive, de- pendent and more protected.
*196. SHOWEB. M., Education and Mobility among Harijans, Gandhian Institute of Studies, Varanasi, 1986 (ICSSR financed)
The objectives of the study were (i) to explore the socioeconomic conditions, family organization and economic status of the Chamars, (ii) to find out the extent of educational and economic benefits enjoyed by the Chamar community, (iii) to find out the socioeconomic condition of the Chamars engaged in traditional occupations and to compare this with the Chamars in modem occupations, (iv) to explore the educational and economic mobility occurring in the Chamar community as revealed through their actual achievement as also through their mobility orientation and level of aspirations, and (v) to study the attitude of the Chamars towards different social systems and dif- ferent policies and programmes of Harijan welfare.
The sample of the study included 50 Chamar Students of higher education, 50 traditionally employed Chamars and 50 government employed Chamars from Varanasi. The primary level data were collected with the help of an interview schedule. Besides, data were collected from official records, census reports, university records, etc. Data were analysed in descriptive form.
The major findings of the study were: 1. Most of the Chamars were born in rural areas; however there was a shift of rural background Harijans to urban areas. 2. Educated Chamars had moderate educational qualifications. Among the traditionally employed ones, more than half were illiterate. The coming generation of the community was becoming more educationally equipped and qualified than the employed Harijans in the preceding generation, 3. The entry of Chamars in the job market had been characterized by low position. They belonged to the low economic group. 4. Most of the Harijans belonged to nuclear families. Except for a few families, the rest had one or more than one literate members. 5. The Harijan students were enrolled in different disciplines. Most of them possessed a mediocre academic status. Most of them were influenced by their fathers. 6. Their educational aspiration was found to be very high. Most of the Harijan students considered that their non-Harijan classmates had a friendly and cooperative attitude towards them. 7. Among government employed sample respondents it was found that 70 per cent respondents were selected under the reserved quota. Most of them considered that the job reservation scheme for SC was unsatisfactory. Most of them wanted to provide education to their children to higher levels. 8. Most of the employed persons considered that the Chamars should not pursue their traditional occupations. However, most of them did not feel alienated from their community. 9. Among the traditionally employed Harijans it was found that they usually worked on shoe preparation and shoe repairs. Most of them liked to stay in their traditional occupation. Some of them had availed of loan facilities for improving their economic status. Most of them complained that the educated Chamars often ignored and kept at a distance the traditional Chamars. Most of them favoured education for their children. However, poverty and occupational assistance by the children to their parents came in the way of education of the children of traditionally employed Harijans. 10. The social participation of the edu-
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cated and employed section of the community was increasing. 11. A large number of Harijans were dissatisfied with the improper and dishonest implementation of welfare schemes for Harijans. However, the majority of them were in favour of constitutional provisions. 12. The educated Chamars had better social interaction with caste Hindus. The old stigma of untouchability existed at the level of traditionally employed Harijans. 13. Most of them were fatalists and conservatives. However, the student respondents favoured intercaste marriage. Modem occupation and the welfare schemes of the government contributed a lot towards changing the socio-cultural attitude of the Chamar community.
*197. SHROFF, Z.E., Contribution of the Parsis to the Development of Education and Social Change in Bombay City, 1820-1920, Ph.D. Hist., Bom. U., 1987
The main objective of the study was to evaluate the contribution of the Parsis to the development of education and social change in Bombay City. The Parsis are an ethno-religious minority living on the western coast of India, chiefly in Bombay. In spite of their small number, the Parsis have played a pivotal role in the recent history of India in general, and of Bombay in particular. Their remarkable role in the political and economic sphere has been studied in depth by several scholars. However, their equally valuable contribution to education and social change has been generally neglected. The thesis was an attempt to fill this lacuna.
The method of purposive random sampling was used for the selection of the sample. The sample consisted of 17 educational institutions, of which six were boys' schools, three were girls' schools, five were colleges and three were general institutions. The entire study was based on an historical approach. The tools employed for data collection were archival material, private documents, official publications, census reports, gazetteers, records of meetings of various educational societies and institutions, contemporary works and newspapers, and also secondary sources such as books and journals. The data were analysed with the help of statistical techniques, viz., mean and percentages.
The major findings of the study were: 1. The Parsis did their best to grasp every educational opportunity that presented itself. 2. Their traditional esteem for learning led the Parsis to become actively involved in the pursuit and furtherance of English education.
3. Throughout the nineteenth century, Parsi students dominated most of the educational institutions of Bombay. 4. In fact, most of these institutions had been founded by the Parsis themselves. 5. Rich Parsi seths, although they themselves were often uneducated, showed an enlightened interest in the promotion of education. 6. Where female education was concerned, the Parsis of Bombay were pioneers. 7. The Parsis took the lead in matters of social reform. 8. They did not restrict their reforming zeal to the betterment of their own community but also worked for reform amongst other Indian communities. 9. Thus, the Parsis served as important agents of social change.
*198. SHYAMSUNDER,A Study of Problems and Personality Profiles of Truants in Various Types of Schools in Delhi with a View to Suggesting Measures to Check Them, Ph.D. Edu., Del. U., 1979
The objectives of the study were (i) to rind out the incidence and types of truancy prevalent in the higher secondary schools of Delhi, (ii) to investigate the problems, wrangles and torturous situations which caused the truant to escape, (iii) to examine the distinctive characteristics or traits of the truants, (iv) to bring to light the needs, frustrating factors and reactions of the truants in their living conditions, (v) to analyse the probable causes of truancy, (vi) to suggest, on the basis of some empirical evidence, a few effective remedial measures for improving the situation, and (vii) to procure personality profiles of truants and analyse their distinctive features.
In the study, three approaches of the descriptive method were followed viz., survey, comparison and case study. The sample consisted of 24 schools of Delhi, out of which 12 were government and 12 were aided. A survey was undertaken to select the 24 schools to find out the incidence and type of truancy prevailing in the schools, teachers' perception about the gravity of the problem, and the pattern of administration being adopted to face the situation created due to truancy. The tools used in this part of the study were (a) Guess Who- a sociometric technique, and an opinionnaire for the class teachers. The comparative study was concerned with the 95 truants and 95 regular students of classes 8, 9, 10. Tools used for the comparative study were: (i) The Problem Checklist, (ii) The Personality Trait Inventory Set A and Set B, (iii) The Self Concept
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Scale designed on the basis of differential technique, and (iv) The Inventory Questionnaire. The third approach was concerned with the depth study of 40 cases (20 regulars and 20 truants). Selected cases were studied in detail by providing them nine tests, viz., the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, the T.A.T., the Rosenziweing Personality Factor Questionnaire, the Bender's Gestalt Test, the Sentence Completion Test, and the questionnaire cum interview with respect to inadequacies, frustrations and aspirations of the subjects. The data collected by the above four approaches were analysed using descriptive statistics.
The findings of the study were: 1. The incidence of truancy in schools was serious. Nearly 12 per cent were skipping classes or absenting themselves from school. Of these, seven per cent were habitual truants. 2. Truancy was a teenage infection, the average age of truants being 16 years. 3. The problem of truancy was more acute in government schools than in aided schools. 4. Truants skipped school more individually than in groups but group truancy was also prevalent. 5. Truants were backward in studies, and had often repeated grades. 6. Truants were uninterested in the school and were uninvolved in its programmes. They were dissatisfied with the schools. 7. Major stumbling blocks were school discipline, physical environment, poor performance, punitive measures, absence of recreational activities, school timings, a monotonous time table, harassment for tuition, teachers' rivalry and wearisome home tasks. 8. Truants had poor study habits. They longed for soft-spoken and affectionate teachers, recognition and remedial assistance. 9. Most of the teachers did not have a good opinion of the truants. They found them lacking in mental alertness, integrity, emotional stability, participation in school activities and general outlook. 10. Most of the truants came from large, mismanaged families with no regularity or norms and where parents were unable to provide appropriate guidance and supervision. 11. Most of the truants were elder wards and pressed by bread-earning pursuits. 12. The parents of the truants were mostly ill-educated, were in minor jobs and belonged to the lower income group. 13. Parents did not have a good opinion of their truant wards and found them talkative, negligent, passive, and spendthrift. 14. Truants sought solace and protection from friends. Their friends included mostly sportsmen or those who supported them. 15. Truants were intellec- tually backward, had poor observation ability and lacked clear thinking. 16. They had little self-confidence, so they could not be self-reliant, lacked fighting spirit, and indicated inhibition and phant