1 Studies in this area are discussed elsewhere in this volume-Editor.
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and Second Survey in Psychology (Pareek, 1980). The present set of studies have been classified under six broad areas: Cognitive Processing, Cognitive Development, Antecedents of Cognitive Processes, Language Development, Creativity, and Cognitive Style.
Naidu (1973) investigated the relationship between perception, learning and memory as they occurred within the same individual under taboo, low taboo and non-taboo conditions. The children were assigned randomly to the three conditions and the method of minimal changes was followed. Evidence for this reciprocal facilitation and impairment was found in all the three processes. Perception, reasoning and learning of primary school children studying in different types of schools were studied by Banga (1980) in relation to their personality characteristics. The results revealed significant differences in cognitive processing attributed to differences in school atmosphere (English and Hindi medium). Malhotra (1982) experimentally studied internal representations in the reasoning process in children in solving linear syllogistic reasoning problems and analogy problems. Ability and reasoning measures were related. Age and sex did not differentiate but SES did influence the reasoning process.
Persistence is another dimension of cognitive processing which was measured by using a highly reliable questionnaire covering striving, adhering, continuing and completing a task despite failures and obstacles. Persistence was significantly and positively related to need for achievement, level of aspiration, and negatively with anxiety. Both Ausubel's advance organizer model and Bruner's instructional model were found superior to traditional teaching strategy for teaching concepts to higher secondary school pupils so far as knowledge transfer and heuristic transfer of the concept were concerned. However, Bruner's and Ausubel's models are differentially effective and superior to one another, depending upon the nature of the learning situation.
Walia (1983) analysed the processing of information, under verbal and non-verbal cues concerning object colours, using postgraduate students and the experimental method. In a similar line, information integration analysis was done in analysing social perception in relation to age and nature of task (Srivastava, 1984) in a series of three experiments. Cognitive algebra for prediction of task performance varied as a function of the nature of the task and developmental level of the subjects. Integration rules were also changed according to age. Decision-making under conditions of uncertainty was investigated experimentally using 192 children (CA 10- 16) varying in SES and type of school in which they were studying. Decision-making under conditions of risk and under conditions of uncertainty was found to be different. SES, age and sex intervened in the process of decision-making. Risk-taking behaviour among deviant adolescents was earlier reported by Kumari (1981) where high risk- taking behaviour was associated with high aspiration and positive self-esteem and by Sharma, G. (1982) as a function of group structure and personal relevance.
The information-processing approach was studied under differential reinforcement conditions. Using an experimental design with children (CA 10-12), the study revealed differential perceptual organization as a function of reward and punishment. Positive reinforcement was more effective in perceptual search compared to negative reinforcement. However, reinforcement was not a condition for perceptual learning (Harjinder Kour, 1986).
The structure of cognitive processing abilities in tribal and non-tribal children was studied by using a series of cognitive tests and four processes were identified: simultaneous, successive, attention concentration and speed. Differences in processing habits were attributed to age, SES, and tribal/non-tribal variations (Das, 1984). Kulkarni (1987) identified the ability for decision making in social situations among adolescents.
The experimental investigations reported here revealed use of adequate control over design, procedure, conceptual base and test materials, as well as data analysis. In short, the studies are highly sophisticated and valid and there is consistency in approach to under- standing cognitive processing habits among children. adolescents, and postgraduate students, indicating an improvement over the earlier period.
The second set of studies dealt with cognitive development among children. Based on DAT data on schoolchildren, the study by Sharma, N. (1980) revealed that, with advance in age, verbal ability grew more rapidly than others in both boys and girls. Sex affected the growth and development of abilities. Anand Laxmy (1982) reported a very intensive study on cognitive competence in infancy. The major findings were: The psychomotor development index was different in various age and SES groups; it was not related to nutritional status; maternal cognitive stimulation and the child's cognitive competence were related. Several other antecedent conditions were also recognized.
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Variations in, cognitive abilities were also reported among a discrete genetic population (Chhotu Ram, 1985). Level-I and Level-II abilities were different among Harijans and Brahmins, the differences being more prominent in Level-II.
Two studies examined schooling vs. non-schooling on the development of memory and categorization skills (Padhee, 1985) and Piagetian conservation of scientific and social concepts (Padhee, 1986). The studies demonstrated the positive effect of schooling and instruction in the development of cognitive abilities.
Several factors influence cognitive processing. Deprivation has a detrimental effect (Mukerjee, 1978). SES is highly and positively related to conservation of number (Nilima Kumari, 1984). Motivational and cognitive factors were identified in the differences of person perception (Krishnan, 1985) and problem-solving was related positively to intelligence and negatively to social deprivation (Verma, 1986). Anxiety, sex, and task complexity were found to be significant variables influencing problem-solving.
Language development was studied in children in only one study (Sharma, C., 1982) in the age-group of 2 1/2 to 4 years, in relation to mother's language among other factors. Language development was related to age and mother's language, the elaborated language being favourable for language development. Creativity was associated with certain psycho-cultural variables. (Chauhan, 1984).
Cognitive style constitutes another dimension of the information- processing variable. Science students at the university level were more field-independent than arts/commerce students. Language students were field-dependent (Kumar, 1984). High creatives were field- independent and low creatives were field-dependent (Vasesi, 1985). Cognitive style was related to age, achievement, home environment and social-class membership (Paul, 1986). Scanning strategies training could bring higher field-independence scores and, correspondingly higher achievement and its persistence over a period of time (Dash, 1982) as observed in elementary schoolchildren.
The studies reviewed here illustrate an attempt to look at cognitive processing in terms of nature, varieties, its interrelationship with other information-processing habits, nature of cognitive growth and antecedents, risk-taking behaviour, correlates of cognitive processing, creativity and cognitive style in children and adults. The basic designs of studies and analysis procedure warrant the conclusions drawn.
Learning Process Learning is hard-core area in educational psychology. It is therfore expected that research will be more in this area. But during 1972-78 there have been eighteen (only 18) doctoral works and six projects on this subject. The major areas covered in these researches are: bilingualism, language learning, reasoning and problem-solving, understanding, culture and learning, verbal and motor learning as related to knowledge of results, concept. learning, personality factors associated with learning, cognitive processes and learning, cognitive learning and logical thinking. The studies have been extensively reviewed earlier by Rao, Mehta, and Rao (1979). The trend of research focus has apparently been on language learning and concept acquisition, experimental studies on learning, and general studies. The findings could be considered as more theoretical-experimental rather than educationally meaningful, except for the fact that samples were drawn from school situations. Implications from concept learning research could be drawn, however, for curriculum development.
Learning research has been little disappointing in terms of number during the post 1980 period but has been of increasing classroom relevance. Pandian (1983) demonstrated the relationship among learner characteristics, cognitive style, learning style and preference to teaching strategy, using adequate sample tests, and analysis techniques, Panda, N. (1985) studied the effects of cognitive style and adjunct questions, on learning from connected discourse, using a repeated-measure factorial design. Learning outcomes were studied using analysis of variance and tests for specific effects. The results, based on a series of studies, revealed that field- independent students learnt and retained prose significantly more than field-dependent students. Students who read the text with adjunct questions learnt faster and retained longer than those who used the traditional reading style, without any interspersed question. Post- adjunct questions produced better learning and retention scores than pre-adjunct questions in prose learning. Specific adjunct post questions produced significantly better learning and retention than general adjunct post questions. Level-I (simple recall, knowledge level), and level-II (paraphrase, conceptual, etc.) questions led to significantly better retention than the level-III (higher order, presuppositional) adjunct post questions.Delayed retention scores were significantly more than immediate retention scores, which was also evident for field-independent studies. Field-
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independent students proved to be significantly superior to field- dependent students in processing and comprehending scientific textual materials, at all levels of questions, and at both the retention tests. Panda and Mohanty (1981) also tested the effectiveness of adjunct questioning and cognitive style with varying linguistic structure.
Nagpal (1979) studied the effect of punishment procedures in the discrimination-learning of the mentally retarded (IQ 45-52). Punishment contingency had its effects in trial to criterion and percentage of errors. Studying effects of personality aspects of the trainable category appears irrelevant as learning capacity of this group is extremely limited. Chatterjee (1973) demonstrated the problem of labelling in the attainment of conservation concepts by providing relevant cues. Rewards and punishment differentially influenced selfperception during learning situations (Teraiya, 1981). Manjula (1984) and Parmer (1986) studied concept learning. In the study by Manjula (1984), using two (caste groups) X 3 SES, a difference in concept learning was observed as a function of caste membership and level of SES, including interactions. This study suffers from being of repetitive (Das, 1980). Parmar (1986) studied Piagetian concept attainment in schoolchildren (CA 11 + to 16+) and their groupings, the findings of which followed similar Piagetian stage-specific trends.
Learning and instruction were the dimensions of the study reported by Pillai (1987). The study examined the validity of Gagne's model of learning and drew implications for change in the cognitive preference of the learner. Experimental and control groups were used. The findings confirmed Gagne's instructional strategy as valid for classroom instruction. However, it needs to be further tested for different levels of skills.
The next three studies dealt with the role of personality factors in learning (Jain, 1974; Nirmaladevi, 1984; Purandare, 1984). Jain (1974) examined the modality of transfer effects. Intelligence and introversion were significant factors, whereas intolerance for ambiguity and rigidity failed to affect inter-sensory transfer. The sample in the case of the study by Nirmaladevi (1984), included 128 5th-year students in the postgraduate classes. The effects of authoritarianism, rigidity and anxiety were demonstrated in varying degrees on verbal paired associate learning using an experimental procedure. Anxiety and strategy effects were examined in relation to serial learning by Purandare (1984), using undergraduate women students belonging to 40 high- and 40 low-anxiety groups. Low anxiety resulted in better serial learning than high anxiety conditions. Experimenter- and subject-introduced strategies made significant differences in learning.
Learning studies reflect control over design, conceptual basis, procedure, and data analysis and have implications for classroom practice.
Classroom Management Research in this area has a distinct ecological flavour (Doyle, 1986; Shulman, 1986). The central assumption of this process-product approach is that classrooms are characterized by certain features of group setting, regardless of the particular teachers and students. Classroom research provides the context for the application of psychology to instruction.
Classroom Climate Classroom climate is a significant determinant of pupils' learning. Sustained research in the area began in 1970 with the pioneering work of Buch and his associates. Several studies have emerged from this tradition with increasing methodological sophistication over the years; the earlier studies, being more of the descriptive and survey type. Buch and Santhanam (1970) have given a description of such studies. However, the studies aimed at identifying salient features of teaching behaviour in different situations and under different con- ditions. Faroqi (1981) has presented a systematic review of studies reported during 1971-76 and analysed the studies linking (a) presage and process variables, (b) process and product variables, (c) use of feedback on teacher behaviour under the general rubric of commu- nication and influence processes. Positive effects of feedback from interaction analysis in changing teacher behaviour in terms of use of praise, encouragement, questions, acceptance of pupils' ideas, etc., are reported in Santhanam and Susan (1976). At the pre-service level, micro-teaching has been found to provide confirmatory evidence of modifying behaviour of pupilteachers. Faroqi (1981) emphasized the need for more control studies to uncover the relationships between relatively more subtle variables like teachees personality and attitudinal characteristics, instructional objectives, instructional constraints, pupil characteristics and intra-teacher differences. A beginning has however been made in construing research based on theory.
Studies of classroom organizational climate have
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been exhaustively reviewed recently by Panda (1988). The author has concluded that the studies are of the survey type and are correlational in character. Input-output research can be planned, he suggests, to find out the effectiveness of a particular type of leadership on classroom performance and student activities:
The studies are based on perceptions of teachers and pupils of classroom happenings which are subjective. Since these factors are flexible reliability of perceptions is also difficult to obtain. Lack of reproducibility of the factors makes it difficult to obtain valid conclusions. The inter- twined factors make it difficult to exercise controls and the lack of a comprehensive tool of measurement creates further barriers. While a strictly controlled experimental study is not possible, studies with lesser control that will not affect the natural functioning of the classroom may be revealing.
Sense of deprivation was observed among students belonging to different institutions with differing environments (Upadhyaya, 1982). Student morale as an indicator of educational environment in each school was studied. Sharma, R. (1983) compared student morale in government single-shift, government double-shift, private single-shift and government single-shift schools in a rural area. The schools differed significantly in all the seven areas of educational environment measured in terms of student morale. Academic motivation and its relationship with classroom climate was investigated at the high-school level (Kumar, 1984) and high positive relationships between most of dimensions of both variables were obtained, analysis being based on multiple correlations and regression. Classroom climate and its effect upon the pupils' personality and achievement were observed using 30 classes and 1279 students. Classroom climate differed significantly. A classroom with high classroom climate had high people psyche and achievement (Doctor, 1984). A study of the learning environment of an achieving class was reported by Singh, R. P. (1984). Pupils' achievement was related to type of management.
Dholakia (1985) developed a standard measure of climate scale and used it in measuring the relationship between classroom climate and pupil growth assessed in terms of motivation, anxiety, adjustment, and feeling of fulfilment. Humour in the classroom helped teachers to remove classroom tensions, depression, anger and aggression (Bharadwaj, 1984). Convent, corporation, and slum schools contributed to differences in incidence of psychological problems of learners which provided a social work perspective,(Shariff, 1985). The social structure of a school did contribute to incidence of dropouts and maladjustment among students (Rather, 1985).
Rao (1986) defined classroom climate as the general academic and psychological atmosphere that prevails in the classroom as an outcome of the behaviours of the teachers and the pupils and their interactions'. The studies cited above reveal the consciousness of researchers regarding this dimension as a contributing factor to mor- ale, achievement, and development of several psychological characteristics among pupils. The studies are based mostly on comparative and correlational analysis rather than on controlled experimental set-ups.
Teacher Characteristics Variable teacher characteristics is one of the significant dimensions in the teaching-learning process. Several studies have contributed to an understanding of desirable teacher behaviour and dispositions. Among these, Kaul (1977) made an early attempt and differentiated most-accepted and least-accepted secondary school female teachers with regard to their personality, values, and interests. The samples were matched on the basis of age, academic qualifications and training. Reservedness, intelligence and conscientiousness were associated with high acceptance, whereas values were not. Malik (1978) made an analysis of personality correlates of ideal and real self-concept discrepancies of pupil teachers, but the findings need to be approached with caution since the self is also a personality demension. A similar study was reported by Tripathi (1983) who tried to explicate the personality and creativity relationship of pupil- teachers under different SES. Female teacher trainees were high on abstract thinking, conscientiousness, tender-mindedness, imaginativeness and radicalism, and were somewhat less frustrated than male teacher-trainees. Innovative and non-innovative primary teacher$ were also differentiated on personality traits based on sociometry, principal's rating and self rating, and using the 16 PF Personality Questionnaire and Mehdi's Test of Non-verbal Creativity.