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and college level.
The several studies in the teaching aspect of the social science disciplines deal mainly with the state of a of the teaching of the subject rather than on the appropriate combination of methods that could be suggested for the particular type of unit or sub-topic to be taught and learnt. Further, these studies emphasise more the teaching aspect rather than the learning by the students. There is an urgent need to study the learning patterns or styles followed by the students and adopt suitable methods and approaches required to develop educationally and psychologically sound learning patterns. Moreover, learning in small groups and learning individually should be encouraged and therefore researched.
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY Development of programmed material for individual instruction seems to be the main focus of researchers in educational technology. Of the ten studies reviewed under this dimension, nine relate to programming of one type or another. Seven studies deal with linear programmes whereas two studies, Kagathala (1986) and Verma (1977), compare the linear and the branching programme for their effectiveness. Content- wise the programmes deal with units in home science (1), commerce (1), population education (2), history (1) and geography (5). Verma (1977) studied the interaction effects and main effects of styles of programming (linear and branching) response modes (covert and overt) and taxonomic categories. 'Singh (1973) found thematic prompts in programmed material in geography more effective than formal prompts. Verma (1977), Mavi (1981) and Choudhary (1985) developed programmes in geography. Kagathala's (1986) study investigated the relative effectiveness of linear and branching programmes in commerce subjects.
Nanavati (1981) developed a multi-media learning package on population education. Shah's (1984) programme on population education was linear in style and meant for IX standard students. Jayachandran's (1980) filmstrip programme was a projected medium for presenting programmed material to students of history. In the early years, educational technology meant only programmed learning to many researchers. This concept has, however, been outgrown and educational technology today stands for systematic application of scientific principles in teaching. Programmed material finds its legitimate place not as a technique of instructions all by itself but only in combination with other techniques and media in a multimedia instructional packages. The development and use of multi-media instructional packages is yet in its infancy. In the present survey there is only one study where a multi-media instructional package is used. There is need to develop computer programmes for different subjects. Computer-managed and computer-assisted instruction should be priority areas for education research. Computer-presented edu- cational programmes and courseware for distance education require urgent development. The most significant need, therefore, is to view educational technology as a means, rather than an end in itself, for effective teaching and learning.
CURRICULUM Studies on curriculum are generally appraisals of existing curricula in various subjects. Of the 11 studies on curriculum, three relate to population education, two to social studies, two to commerce education, and one each to geography, history, home science and music education.
Pires and Katyal (1957) developed a social studies curriculum suitable for junior basic classes. Gupta (1983) made a critical study of the social studies curriculum with special reference to the secondary stage in Himachal Pradesh and found that the curriculum did not reflect the change in human behaviour and human interaction with physical and social environment.
Vasantha (1985) analysed the content and practice of music education and concluded that music education was essential for national awareness and integration and for international understanding. Shah (1975) conducted a critical enquiry into the programme of home science education in the secondary schools of India and pointed out that, as a new subject, home science education has to be continuously developed and improved upon.
Jain (1977) and Miyan (1986) studied the commerce curriculum. Jain (1977) reviewed the commerce curriculum in relation to the job requirements of bank employees and Miyan (1986) analysed the curriculum for commerce education followed in Bangladesh and gave a number of suggestions for its improvement.
Salkar (1975), Sundarraj (1978) and Mohanty (1986) studied the curriculum of population education. Salkar and Mohanty collected reactions of teachers and parents regarding the inclusion of population education in
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the school curriculum. Mohanty (1986) has indicated the need to make clear to both teachers and students the fundamental concepts of population education and has suggested ways and means for making these clear.
Muthappan's (1984) study on the history curriculum in schools of Tamil Nadu indicates the need to make history as a separate study and not treat it as a part of social studies in the school curriculum.
Curriculum studies were mainly appraisals of the existing curricula. There were only two studies on curriculum development, one at the junior basic level and the other at the college level. Most of the appraisal studies, again, were only state of the art studies and the focus was on the content rather than the process of the curri- culum. Curriculum evaluation studies based on sound theoretical models are conspicuous by their absence. Some of these studies again were historical and descriptive rather than critical and explanatory. More curriculum development studies are required. Curriculum evaluation should also receive more and better attention from researchers. Curriculum studies helping educational policy making is a new area that educational researchers in India have to venture into.
TEXTBOOKS Seven studies on textbooks are reviewed, three in history, three in geography and one in social studies. Pattabiraman (1973) evaluated the nationalized textbooks in social studies. Karim (1982) studied the history books in Kerala State from the perspective of national integration. Kher (1972) evaluated the history textbook for standard VI and Vaghmare (1971) reviewed the exercises in history books. Gagneja (1974) studied the treatment given to some selected countries in history and geography textbook for secondary schools.
Studies on textbook evaluation are only few and far between. When very many states have nationalized textbooks and central authorities like the NCERT are taking up production and publication of textbooks, textbook evaluation gains much importance. Systematic and continuous evaluation of textbooks as to suitability and correctness of the content, readability and technical aspects of the print medium is essential. Reading material for distance learning may have to differ in the way it is presented from material for traditional class- room teaching. Studies on the aspects in which it has to differ and how, are necessary. Textbooks have to be viewed as part of the resource material for learning and not as the only source of information to students. How can textbooks be used in conjuction with other media and available personal resources? What modifications do textbooks require in the way content is presented and in the very nature of the content that is presented? These and similar researchable issues relating to textbooks require attention.
TEST AND MEASUREMENT Of the nine studies reviewed under this section, three are from geography and two each from social studies, history and civics. Standardization of achievement tests is an area in which state-level bodies such as the SIE and SCERT are also interested. As far back as 1965, the SIE, Kerala, standardized an achievement test in social studies. Vanajakshi (1970) prepared a battery of tests to measure the achievement of VII standard students in non-language subjects. In geography, De (1979), Patel (1977) and Gayen (1969) designed and standardized achievement tests and, in some cases, state norms were also established. Patel (1977) included history in his study and Gayen (1969) science, along with geography, for constructing tests. Misra (1968) and Saraf (1964) in the sixties prepared achievement tests in history. The two studies in civics by Muzaffar (1967) and Srivastava (1967), again in the sixties, were on construction and standardization of achievement tests.
Standardized achievement tests require revision and updating in the content aspect. Since tests are standardized for a particular population at a particular time, when the characteristics of the population change over time and place, as constantly happens with student populations and since knowledge in any subject is also so fastgrowing, standardized achievement tests soon become obsolete. Tests constructed in the sixties may not be usable in the eighties and the nineties. Therefore, revised and new achievement tests to reflect the changes in the content of the subject and the requirements of the day are needed. Studies on test and measurement and the allied evaluation areas are the need of the hour, with National Testing Services in the offing as part of the implementation programme of the National Policy on Education. Talent search tests also require validation and standardization. Test construction has to be given special attention when the population for which standardization is to be made is very heterogeneous. There is hardly any study on the construction and standardiza-
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tion of achievement tests on a wider scale after 1978. There is a need to have planned researcher in this area.
EXAMINATION AND EVALUATION Evaluation studies are mainly on measurement of achievement of students in various subjects. The examination system as such was not subjected to critical analysis in many cases. Bhushan (1978) compared the reliability of the various methods of examining students, achievement in history, viz., short answer, essay, oral, and open book methods. Gayen (1970) simply compared the achievement of students in history, civics and economics. Bokil (1959 B) compared the performance of students in different subjects in the SSC examination. The SCERT, Bihar (1986), evaluated the achievement of students in population education.
In the educational arena, the topmost priority for reforms was assigned to the examination (evaluation) system as far back as in 1948 by the University Grants Commission. Administrators and examing bodies have taken various steps for examination reform at various levels-school, college, university, state and national. But researchers somehow are not sufficiently motivated to embark on researches in this turbulent area. Studies on evaluation of effective and psychomotor areas are again almost non-existent. The available studies have focused mainly on the 'what' and 'how' of evaluation and they have not much to say about the 'how best' of evaluation. The 'what' and the 'how' studies are only descriptive and may indicate the researchable issues; but what is required are studies on these researchable issues that would indicate means of coping with them.
INTERESTS AND ATTITUDES Four studies are reviewed in this section. Bose's (1970) study was on the general interest patterns of students specializing in different subjects-science, humanities and commerce. Gupta's (1953) study was about the apathy of students and teachers towards learning and teaching history. Population education has gained importance of late and there were two studies on the attitude of students and teachers towards this subject. The strategy was simple instruction on population education using a learning package. Bhandarkar's (1983) study was on the knowledge about and attitude towards population education of teachers and students. This study established that, by increasing students' knowledge in population studies, favourable attitudes could be developed among them.
APTITUDE There is only one study on scholastic aptitude for learning geography. Singh prepared an aptitude test battery and found out the contribution of each sub-test to achievement in geography.
SUMMING UP Research in social science education generally follows the natural sciences research paradigm but the two branches have their basic differences in the way in which the variables in the two groups function. The natural science variables are manipulable, whereas the social science variables do not lend themselves to easy manipulation. What we require is the development of separate paradigms and models to study the variables in social sciences. Quantitative techniques have their legitimate place in social science researches but trying to reduce everything human into numbers is an extremist view that may not help us understand the human way of seeing meanings in things and events and interacting with others. Human life itself is mostly subjective and to study it with an objective lens will only give a distorted vision. More 'subjective' studies on ethnographic models are also necessary not to supplant but as supplement to the quantitative natural science paradigm based studies in social science education. The assumption of one best solution has to yield place to the postulate of 'equifinality' and researchers' endeavours should be to seek many possible solutions with high probability of success for solving social and individual problems. There is a great need for more qualitative studies and also attempts to judiciously combine the conflicting results of many studies to arrive at workable conclusions by adopting meta-analysis techniques. Researchers need to 'take stock' before they plunge deeper into known areas or venture into new areas. Ethnographic methods and meta-analysis are the two research techniques that need to find their way well into the social science education research domain.
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ABSTRACTS: 771-784 771. BHANDARKAR, K.M., A Study of Population Education Knowledge and Attitudes of Secondary School Students and Teachers, Ph.D. Edu., Bhopal U., 1983
The research aimed at (i) studying population education including the knowledge about population education and attitudes of secondary school students and teachers, (ii) studying their relationship with other useful components of population education.
The sample comprised 142 teachers and 1500 students of 22 urban and rural schools. A Population Education Knowledge Test and an Attitude Scale were specially constructed for the study. The data were analysed by using descriptive statistics; t-test and product- moment correlation were used for drawing conclusions.
The major conclusions drawn from the study were: 1. Secondary school students in general possessed a poor knowledge of population education but they had a moderately favourable attitude towards it. 2. The secondary school teachers had moderate knowledge and a favourable attitude. 3. Male and female students differed significantly in their knowledge base and attitude towards population education. Female students scored higher on both knowledge and attitude tests than male students. 4. Students of arts had better knowledge than students of biology, mathematics and commerce groups, while the biology and arts students had a more favourable attitude than students of commerce and mathematics. 5. The groups categorized, on the basis of parental educational level, differed significantly in their knowledge and attitude. 6. Population education knowledge and attitudes were positively related with their family income, The groups in these regards differed significantly. 7. The students of nuclear families possessed better knowledge and had more positive attitudes than those of joint families. 8. On the dimension of religion, it was found that Muslim and Sikh students had a comparatively higher knowledge base than Hindu and Christian students. Religion, however, did not have any significant impact on their attitudes. 9. Scheduled caste students displayed a better knowledge base than students of scheduled tribes and general categories. Scheduled tribe students had poor knowledge and the least favourable attitude towards population education.
It is implied that by increasing students' knowledge of population education, favourable attitudes can be developed among them toward population education.
772. BHATTACHARYA, G.C., Effectiveness of Various Models for Teaching Geography in Relation to Institutional Resources, Ph.D. Edu., BHU, 1984
The major objectives of the study were (i) to find out the effectiveness of teaching geography through the Concept Attainment Model in relation to institutional resources, (ii) to find out the effectiveness of teaching geography through the Inductive Model of teaching in relation to institutional resources, (iii) to compare the effectiveness of teaching geography through the Concept Attainment and Inductive Models of teaching in relation to institutional resources, and (iv) to find out the interaction effects of the different levels of educational institution resource status, models of teaching and types of concepts taught on the gain in achievement scores of junior high school students in geography.
The study was conducted with parallel group design with three treatments, viz. teaching with traditional method, Concept Attainment Model and Inductive Model. The data were collected with the help of Educational Institution Resource Status Index, SocioEconomic Status Index, Entering Behaviour Test in geography prepared and standardized by the investigator. Other tools used for the data collection were Joshi's General Mental Ability Test and Joshi's Study Habits and Attitude Inventory. Mean, t-test, F-test and threeway analysis of variance in a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design were used for analysing data and drawing conclusions.
The major findings of the study were: 1. The Concept Attainment Model group of students did not differ significantly in achievement from the traditional teaching technique group in high resource status educational institutions. 2. The students taught through the Concept Attainment Model showed better achievement in geography than the traditional teaching technique group in average and low resource status educational institutions. 3. The Inductive Teaching Model group proved itself to be more effective for achievement in geography in comparison to the traditional teaching technique as well as the Concept Attainment Model, irrespective of the resource status of educational institutions. 4. The main interaction effects of high and low levels of educationl institution resource status, Inductive and Concept Attainment Models of teaching, and achieve-
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