Thakur (1976) tried to identify the characteristics of a good teacher. There were 19 such studies but the definition or concept of a good teacher differed in all these studies. Some researchers have studied the 'good teacher' from the perception of other members related to school or college life, including students. The other studies have taken account of teachers' teaching with respect to its bearing on achievement of students. Gupta (1977) studied effectiveness of teachers through the effect of teachers' classroom behaviour on pupil creativity. Prakasham (1986) studied teaching competence arising out of school organizational climate. Shobha (1985) studied the ability of teachers to predict students' performance in the examination. Apart from finding out the effect of the teacher on pupils, researchers like Srisucondharatna (1985) studied teachers as a factor affecting modernization. He studied personality characteristics of teachers in the process of moderniza- tion. Other studies on characteristics of teachers have covered a variety of variables operational problems of secondary and primary school teachers (Kumar, 1985; Singh, 1975), utilization of time in different activities (Kudesia, 1986), learning needs (Kudesia, 1984), teacher morale (Vichao, 1983; Kanchana, 1985; Narula, 1986), attitudes and values (Saran, 1975; Wera, 1982; and Gupta, 1986), personality characteristics (Kaul, 1977; Hossain, 1983; Som, 1984; Puranik, 1985), self-concept (Rai, 1983; Chadda, 1985), job satisfaction and job involvement (Mistry, 1985; Abdulsamad, 1986; Ahmad, 1986; Dixit, 1986), job satisfaction and professional honesty (Srivastava, 1986), role conflict (Mehta, 1985), role expectation and role performance (George, 1982), innovative proneness (Shukla, 1984), caste prejudices (Saxena, 1975), attitude towards environmental education (Gupta, 1986), sociometric structure of teachers in schools (Kaur, 1985). Through the study of such variables, the investigators projected the picture of a teacher.
Investigators also studied subject-specific and sex-specific characteristics of teachers. Balwinder (1986) studied job satisfaction of home-science teachers with respect to personal and professional characteristics. Bhamwari (1986) studied role perspective of women teachers in relation to marital status, age, educational background, etc. Saita (1984) studied role conflict ex- perienced by women teachers of Thailand. There are at least 20 such studies that have investigated characteristics of women teachers. One conclusion that can be drawn from such studies is that sex-specific characteristics do not make for differences in the job of teaching. Researchers like Kumar (1982) went deep into the subject and made a job analysis of secondary school teachers and identified different jobs done by the teachers. Banerji (1984) investigated the grievances of college and university teachers.
Apart from the characteristics of teachers, researchers also studied thinking patterns and ideologies of teachers working in schools. Sharique (1984) studied the educational viewpoint of secondary school teachers about aims, methods, pupil control, policy of promotion, etc. Mishra (1986) made a study of teachers with respect to degree of overall meaning in life and sources of meaning in personal and professional life. Such studies are an encouraging trend in research in teacher education. They will provide qualitative analysis for input variables in the shape of characteristics of teachers for teacher education programmes especially at the inservice stage.
The other set of studies connected with teacher characteristics are of the conditions under which the teachers work.. These are mainly surveys of schools and colleges. The reports of five surveys conducted at the national level have already made their appearance in the three earlier surveys of educational research (Buch 1974, 1979, 1986). Along with these, a review of a few more surveys will help in understanding problems linked with teacher education. Sharma (1976) surveyed the schools of backward areas of Rajasthan with respect to teacher-pupil ratio, number of teachers teaching science, and needs of teachers in the backward areas. In another survey, Sharma (1981) tried to find out the number of untrained teachers in the primary schools of Rajasthan. Gogate (1984) surveyed the educational qualifications of teachers to find out whether the subject they had offered at their first degree level was the same as that which they were teaching at the secondary level. At the higher education level, Singh (1984) investigated the procedure of recruitment of teachers in uni-
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versities and colleges. Banerji (1984) studied the grievances of college and university teachers. Naqvi (1984) surveyed the basic factors that were related to mobility, inbreeding and retention of teachers at university and college level. All these surveys have one thing in common: they all tell us that prevailing conditions are not conducive to teachers teaching according to expectations.
All these studies have been concerned with areas like selection, occupational choice, social origin and status of teachers, intellectual abilities, personality characteristics, values, attitudes, teachers role, need, problems, working conditions, etc. One can observe that these studies concentrate on non-cognitive variables and only a few have studied cognitive variables. Another feature of these studies is that they have studied the characteristics of teachers mainly at secondary level, and only a few have studied characteristics of teachers working at pre-primary, primary, higher and technical educational levels. Researchers need to pay attention to these not-so-explored areas. Also, there is a need to investigate the training needs of the teachers working in different geographical and educational environments. Such studies can be of great help in planning in-service teacher education programmes in view of the fact that teacher education has to be a continuous process and changes are currently taking place in school curriculum.
Presage Studies This area covers variables related to teacher educators' characteristics, such as the formative experience of the teacher- educator, his education, professional experience, training, personality factors, intelligence, attitude and his training skills. These studies have their importance as they help in management and manpower planning in teacher-education programmes. But this area has not attracted the attention of researchers. Only 12 studies can be counted to fall in this set. Valand (1983) studied innovative proneness of teacher-educators of primary teacher-training colleges of Gujarat. Innovative proneness was identified through teacher- educators' attitude towards specific innovations. It was found that innovative proneness varied with respect to age, experience, sex and professional, and academic qualifications. Pramua (1987) investigated the attitude of teacher-educators towards non-formal education in Thailand. The attitude was found to be related with sex, level of creativity and teaching experience. The other studies reported in earlier surveys only investigated non-cognitive variables. Studies are required in the cognitive aspect of teacher-educators. Above all the professional. aspect of the teacher-educator needs to be studied with deeper insight. The job of teacher-educator is different from that of the school-teacher. Therefore, the studies have to be done with respect to job analysis, role performance, job satisfaction, etc. of the teacher-educator.
Context-Presage Studies In this set are categorized those studies that have related context variables of institutional environment with the presage variables of characteristics of teacher-educators. Only four studies fall in this area, out of which only one is reported in this survey. Chaichana (1981) studied the relationship of organizational climate with teacher-educators' morale in the teachers colleges of Thailand. A sample of 530 teacher-educators from 36 teachers colleges of Thailand was taken. Teachers colleges were identified as having open and closed climate. The study revealed that the morale of teacher- educators was high in teachers colleges having open climate as compared to those having closed climate. With such a small number of studies it is difficult to comment. More studies are required in this area so as to restructure teacher-education programmes in India. Keeping in view the varied institutional responsibilities of teacher- educators in India, the researchers need to conduct studies which compare and relate teacher-educators' behaviour and responsibility with different types of institutions.
Presage-Process Studies Studies of the relationship between presage variables and process variables are grouped in this set. The presage studies are linked with the characteristics of teacher-educators. The process studies consist of classroom transaction and mediating processes that lead to learning such as attending, practising, task persistence, active learning time, student-teacher's engagement with learning task, teacher-educator's supervisory behaviour, etc. The studies that link the presage and process variables have their importance for drawing up guidelines for evaluating practice-teaching programmes and adopting innovations. But this area has not been able to attract the attention of researchers and only four studies could be categorized for this set. In these studies, the investigators have studied the characteristics of
RESEARCH IN TEACHER EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 909
teacher-educators as related to their supervisory behaviour. Tripathi (1984) studied the relationship between personality traits of teacher- educators with their supervisory practices at the B.Ed. stage. He found that personality traits of teacher-educators were related to their mode of supervision. Teprongtong (1984) studied the difference in role performed and role expected of teacher-educators as supervisors in the eyes of student-teachers. Apart from a supervisory role, the teacher-educator plays other roles also in teacher education as a specialist in education and task-oriented jobs. Such roles need to be probed with respect to characteristics of teacher-educators.
Context-Product Studies In this set, studies have related teacher/student-teacher characteristics and institutional characteristics (context variables) with the outcomes of teacher education programmes (product variables). Product variables can be categorized in two types- one that describes immediate outcomes of teacher-education programmes and the other that looks into long-term outcomes. The immediate outcome variables are those that pertain to teacher/student-teacher outcome as reflected in achievement, attitude, teaching skills, etc. The long-term outcome variables used in the studies pertain to professional skills, teaching success or teaching effectiveness. The definition or concept of teaching success or teaching effectiveness has been used differently by various researchers, rather it has been dependent upon the tools used by them. Such studies make a contribution to teacher education as they try to answer the question, 'What pre-conditions are required to become a successful/effective teacher?' This area is one of the most explored areas in teacher education. There are 56 studies that can be categorized for this set. These can be further divided into two sections; one of studies relating teacher/student-teacher characteristics with teaching effectiveness; and another of studies that relate institutional environment with teaching effectiveness. Twenty-two studies have related institutional context variables with product variables. Joshi (1985) studied expressed attitude of teachers in relation to Christian and non-Christian managed institutions. He found a change in the role behaviour of teachers belonging to different managements. There is a large number of stud- ies reported in earlier surveys that have been concerned with the effect of organizational climate and institutional environment on teacher's teaching, adjustment and his classroom behaviour. Other studies have taken into account the Institutional environment with respect to organizational climate and social cohesiveness in the teacher-education institution and found its impact on achievement of student-teachers in theory and practice teaching, their attitude, adjustment, etc. Such, studies tested the hunch that the organizational climate of an institution was positively related with academic. and other intellectual attainments of the participants.
In a second section can be included studies which related context variables or teacher/student-teacher characteristics with the product variables of teaching success or teaching effectiveness. There are 34 such studies. Gopalacharyulu (1984) studied the relationship of per- sonality, attitude towards teaching and socioeconomic status with the achievement of student-teachers in B.Ed. Patil (1984) studied the relationship of sex, academic qualifications and intelligence of B.Ed. students with their achievement in theory. Radha (1984) compared personality characteristics of the science studentteachers who achieved high and low scores in the B.Ed. All these studies pointed out that characteristics like personal adjustment, attitude towards professional work, scientific temper, etc. were related to performance in the B.Ed. and could predict teaching performance. Some researchers went a step further and related characteristics of teachers/student- teachers with their attainment of teaching skills. Katiyar (1982) and Dubey (1986) studied personality traits of studentteachers having high and low attainment scores on various teaching skills. Their studies revealed differences in personality traits of high and low achievers. The extent of variation in the product variables used in all these studies is so high that it is difficult to make inferences. Further, the researchers limited the product variables to classroom functioning of the teacher. The skills and behaviour of the teacher required to deal with the outside classroom situation have not been studied by researchers. There is a need that non-intellectual and psychomotor learning outcomes of the teachers be studied with respect to their characteristics and institutional environment.
Process-Product Studies The process-product studies included the process variables related to the functioning of teacher-education programme and product variables like teacher effectiveness, general teaching competence, attitude towards teaching, adjustment, maturity of student-teachers, cre-
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ative abilities, knowledge and comprehension skills, social awareness, etc. These studies have much to contribute towards teacher-education programmes as these spell out ways of process of teacher education. In these studies, two categories can be distinguished. The first is those that took up the existing teacher-education programmes and studied their effects on teaching competence. The second concentrated on some innovation in the teacher training system and used it in the form of an instructional design system. The researchers followed a series of steps like framing objectives, learning experiences, planned training procedures, systematic observation of classroom transactions and a feedback to the learner. Such studies used various innovations like microteaching, classroom interaction training system and training in models of teaching.
(a) Studies in Operational Teacher Education Programme Most of the studies in this category are impact studies as these ascribed the change in product variables to the ongoing teacher- education programme. They investigated the product variables when the student-teachers entered the existing system and later when they were just about to leave the college. Mehta (1985) and Pillai (1985) studied the impact with respect to change in attitude towards teaching, motivating factor for choosing teaching, and change in values. Banga (1983) studied the impact of a teacher-training programme in physical education on physical fitness, personality characteristics, adjustment and maturity of student teachers. Kudesia (1986) studied the effect of a technical teachers training programme on teaching skills. All these researches concluded that a change in student-teachers' behaviour took place because of training. In a similar context, some researchers compared trained and untrained teachers on various product variables and found trained teachers different from their untrained counterparts. Bhide (1987) compared them on self-concept. Researchers like Das (1979) went a step further and compared trained and untrained teachers of primary level on their ability to solve the problem of wastage and stagnation. However, results revealed that training of teachers did not contribute to checking wastage and stagnation.
Some researchers compared the products of two different operational schemes of teacher education. Singh (1985) compared teaching competence, role performance, and attitude towards teaching of teachers trained through a one-year B.Ed. course and a four-year integrated teacher-education course run in the regional colleges of education. The teachers of the two courses were not found to be different. Gogate (1983) went a step further and studied the effect of a training programme not only on teachers but also on teacher education and extension education workers. The training programme was organized for the education of socially and economically backward children. A change was found in the awareness of the subjects involved in the training programme about the methods of teaching required for the target group. However, a close look at all these studies shows that the impact of present teacher-education programmes has been investigated only at the peripheral level. A deeper analysis is needed so as to study the impact of training at social, economic and cultural levels, The researchers need to study the impact of training with respect to teachers' contribution to society as a factor of social and cultural change.
(b) Studies in Innovative Teacher Training Practices The second set of studies used some innovations in operational teacher education programmes. The innovations used had. been concerned with various aspects of teacher-education programmes. Researchers like Bhatt (1966) studied the effect of the Kapason training scheme where student-teachers, apart from usual practice teaching and theory, were also trained in organizing creative activities in arts and craft. The training was found to be effective. Adinarayan (1983) trained student-teachers in stating objectives, analysis of the context and techniques of evaluation. The experimental group was found to be better on inquiry and investigatory skills. All such studies introduced specific innovations in the operational teacher-education programme and investigated its effectiveness. There are other studies that used innovations concerned with the theory or practice teaching part of the teacher-education programme. The innovations in the theory part had been development and use of self-learning material and the use of mass media, whereas in the case of practice teaching part, the innovations were behaviour modification techniques, microteaching and training in models of teaching. Most of these studies are experimental in nature and employ experimental design as per their objectives to judge the effectiveness of the innovations with respect to teaching competence.