5.4. Specific Studies Curriculum development in general requires development of specific curricula in various areas. In the area of language learning, development of graded vocabulary is one aspect which has engaged attention of the researchers only recently. Gupta (1983) investigated basic Hindi vocabulary in Jammu & Kashmir; Bhanushali (1985) in Bombay; and Edke (1986) developed a graded vocabulary for grades I-IV.
Another area in curriculum development which has gained attention is the use of educational television (ETV). Seth (1983) studied the importance of ETV whereas Singh & Singh (1984) conducted two projects on the need, utilization and evaluation of ETV in Orissa. Three studies have been conducted on cocurricular aspects. The study by Sharma (1979) is on the scheme for health education in primary schools; another by Veeraswamy (1985), is on play festival programmes in elementary schools and the third by Kapur (1986), is on moral education. Besides these, studies in related curriculum areas were also undertaken. Das (1974) studied the importance of physical conditions and facilities on the attainment of children at primary stage.
5.5. Hidden Curriculum Hidden curriculum is one consideration in curriculam development which emerged during the second half of the current century. It refers to the psycho-sociological variables which contribute to the inter- personal relationship and personality development of the school-going population. Five studies perttain to this aspect. Rebecca (1976) studied the relationship of socialization to ethnicity. Kumar (1983) studied the spoken language ability of school children in relation to caste and class variables. Rathore (1985) investigated the effect of social structure of school and the creative inclination of students in relation to their dropout rate And mal-adjustment. Puranik (1980) studied the effect of organizational climate and teacher morale on the social maturity of pupils. Dhondiyal (1984) investigated the effects of teacher expectation on the sociometric status of primary school children.
VI. EVALUATION STUDIES Only three studies have been conducted in the area of evaluation. The first was by Tiwari (1975) in which he studied the system of evaluation in upper primary schools and its problems. A new feature in evaluation is the non-detention of students in primary classes. The SCERT, Andhra Pradesh (1976) studied the impact of the non- detention policy. It was found that, while the students were free from fear of examinations they were not motivated for study. Their study habits were impaired and this policy adversely affected the children of the weaker sections. Another study by Sharma (1981) on this policy indicated that non-detention contributed towards reduction of educational wastage to some extent at the primary and secondary stages in Andhra Pradesh.
VII. SCHOOL SYSTEMS Twelve studies on formal school systems have been reported with one study each conducted during the 50s and 60s; six during the 70s and four during the 80s. Due to diversity of conditions in our country it is but natural that we have schools operating under different settings, namely, single and double shifts, residential (tribal ashram schools) and non-residential, day schools and night schools, and aided and unaided schools. Obviously, the studies reviewed in this section have a bearing on some of these settings.
Tannu (1959), who studied the shift system of Bombay primary schools, reported reduced instructional hours-three hours as compared to the normal five hours; poor pupil attendance; and promotions not based on merit. There are four studies on single-teacher schools. Chickeramane (1964) examined the working of single-teacher schools and evolved methods of work for them; the SIE, Assam (1968) conducted case studies of single-teacher schools of Jorhat sub-division and Joshi (1973) made a factual analysis of the purposes, functions and problems of one-teacher schools of western Maharashtra. In another NCERT- financed project,
1258 J.S GREWAL, I.D. GUPTA
Mali (1984) studied 98 single-teacher schools and found that only 80 schools were in usable condition where only nine teachers had copy of the syllabus. They were not able to prepare a common time table. Supervision was non-existent. Out of 819 boys and 368 girls in class 1, only 227 boys and 45 girls completed class IV in four years. While 71.3 per cent of the students passed class I, the rest dropped out. The study tried out the ungraded model and identified a variety of methods, viz., individual group instruction, graded teaching and the self-study method. Thakur (1973), in a study of ten model schools (set up by the SIE, Assam), selected from Dibrugarh and Sibsagar districts, concluded that the schools could not make significant improvement in academic attainment because of the location of the schools and also because their teacher-training programme was defective. The SCERT, Andhra Pradesh evaluated the functioning of the night primary schools of six districts where the facilities of the day schools were used. The children came from poor SES conditions and their performance was generally poor. There were no incentives for the children and teachers. Also there was no scope for games and other activities. Pratap and Raju (1973) reviewed the functioning of 31 aided schools. A majority of the schools were not functioning satisfactorily due to lack of interest on the part of the functionaries (teachers, managers, and also because there human and material inputs were inadequate. Krishna Rao (1986) reported a case study of seven tribal schools run by the TCRTI, Hyderabad. In addition there were three studies on ashram schools which are run by tribal authorities. Pratap, Raju & Rao (1971), in their study of six ashram schools, found that the average percentage of absenteeism was 31.60, the stagnation index was 38.31, and the curriculum was almost identical to that of other primary schools. Bose (1982), on study of a sample of ashram schools selected from three districts of Bihar, found that these schools did not fulfil the objectives for which they were established and were not different from the general elementary schools. However, Desai and Patel (1981) in their study of 22 ashram schools, found that these schools induced regularity in village school and also observed their impact on the people in terms of their awareness about education, profession and social and political roles. That physical conditions (facilities) have an impact upon efficiency in education was confirmed in a study on 380 primary schools of Sibsagar district of Assam by Das (1974).
VIII. TEACHERS AND TEACHER TRAINING Eleven studies are reported on teachers and their training. All these have been conducted during the last three decades. Studies on teachers as professionals have a focus on their SES conditions, qualifications, personality characteristics, involvement in their jobs, place and importance of teaching as an occupation, needs, prob- lems and their working conditions, especially of women teachers. Studies on teacher training deal with plans and programmes of teacher training institutions in certain states (Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh) and also the input-output relationship in the case of teacher-training institutions of Punjab state.
A survey study conducted twenty years ago by the BMC (1966), besides identifying the professional needs and physical facilities for teachers, sought reorientation of the educational systems at all levels and a complete change in the outlook of the society from pursuing wealth and affluence to seeking the right human values. Studies by Paranjape (1970) conducted in Maharashtra and by Thakur (1978) conducted in Assam deal with problems, difficulties and working conditions of teachers. Women teachers of Maharashtra found it difficult to play their dual role (home-making, job), but the teachers of Assam felt that they were able to play their dual role successfully. However, they faced many problems and difficulties in this regard. Two studies, one by Agrawal (1969) and the other by Bose, Banerji and Mukherji (1972), have studied the teaching compe- tence, intelligence level, academic qualifications, liking for teaching profession and the average time which a teacher devotes daily to teaching. Roy (1975), who conducted a sociological survey of primary teachers, found that more women were attracted to teaching as this occupation gave them more social prestige though opportunities for promotion are lacking. MSBTPCR (1974) made a study of the background of mathematics and science teachers and studied their opinions regarding the syllabus introduced in 1974. The study revealed lack of adequate professional background of science and math- ematics teachers and also that they did not favour teaching of new mathematics. Gupta (1981) studied job involvement and need pattern of primary school teachers. Teaching in rural and urban areas was studied in relation to teaching effectiveness. Naik (1981) made a comprehensive survey of teachers working in primary schools of Pune. A larger proportion of teachers taught all the subjects in aided schools than did so in corporation schools.
RESEARCH IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 1259
In, his study, Tripathi (1964) pointed out several weaknesses in the programmes of Basic Teacher Training institutions BTIs), in such areas as enrolment, curriculum techniques of teaching crafts (work experience), methods of teaching various subjects, administration and integration among the various subjects included in the curriculum. The SIE, Gujarat (1969), on the basis of a survey of 70 primary teacher training institutions, found both similarity (course, evaluation) and diversity (system for practice lessons) and suggested upgradation of laboratories and libraries. Gupta (1982), in a correlational study of the BTIs in Punjab found a significant correlation between various inputs (quality of teacher educators, student teachers' motivation, teachers' morale, leadership style) and outputs (performance in examination). Eight predictor variables of teaching performance were identified. Gogate, in a recent study (1983), has analysed training of primary teachers in the context of universalization of primary education.
IX.ECONOMICS Misra (1959) made a comprehensive analysis of educational finance in India for 1698 to 1959 which also included elementary education. Mathur (1968) found that educational expenditure rose by 20 per cent during 1951-61; per head expenditure on education rose by 144 per cent and per pupil expenditure increased from Rs 44 to Rs 72. Among institutions, the annual rate of growth of direct expenditure in respect of primary education was 7.2 per cent. These studies cover a wide spectrum of the educational sector.
There are two specific studies on the cost of elementary education. Bose (1976) determined the components and differentials of unit cost of elementary education for the state of West Bengal. The average recurring per pupil cost for the whole state was Rs. 62 and Rs. 60 among schools in Calcutta during 1972-73. Dandavate (1996) dealt with the cost of primary education in the Greater Bombay area during 1960-80.
X. RESEARCH NEEDS Only one study by Dunakhe (1984) has identified research needs in primary education through documentary analysis of research surveys and an encyclopaedia of educational research. Questionnaires were also sent to 194 educational personnel who were found to be well aware of ther needs of research in primary education. The specific research needs indentified included indepth studies on absenteeism, ability grouping, curriculum development practices, educational policy, par- ents' education, school entrance, and transport systems for school children.
As can be seen, a good number of these researches are status studies conducted through surveys. Longitudinal and cross-sectional techniques and also Piagetian methodology have been used in very few studies. As for themes, barring a few areas like curriculum develop- ment and single-teacher schools, they are mostly traditional. Very few researches are on educational and psychological development of children under existing socio-economic conditions. All these aspects and also the priority areas identified by NPE-1986 suggest that future researches in this area. should centre on Barriers in the Education of Women, Minorities, SCs, STs and Disabled Children; Learner-centred Strategies; Minimum Learning Outcomes-Scholastic and Nonscholastic; Continuous Evaluation and Diagnostic Testing; School Readiness for Universalization; Remedial Programmes; Effectiveness of Voluntary Bodies and Centrally Sponsored Projects; and District, Village and Taluka Level Studies.
1260 RESEARCH IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS
ABSTRACTS: 1439-1481 1439. ACHARYA, A.A., Compulsory Primary Education in Andhra Pradesh A Policy Analysis, Ph.D. Edu., Osm. U.,1984
The objectives of the study were (i) to overview the evolution of educational policy and its implementation in India till the advent of independence, (ii) to analyse the objectives for which article 45 of the Constitution was framed and the background in which the Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Act came into force, (iii) to review the working of the compulsory primary education programme in Andhra as implemented in Warangal district in the light of provisions of the An- dhra Pradesh Act, of 1961, and (iv) to evaluate the impact of the policy especially on weaker sections in the rural areas over a period.
The study involved a case study of the district Warangal where compulsory education was implemented. In addition to this, various records concerned with implementation and institution of the policy in vogue were also studied. Further, a random sample of 25 executive officials and 175 teachers and headmasters working in 100 schools of the district were chosen as sample for the study. In all 100 parents of the children of the sample schools were taken randomly. The sample subjects were interviewed to ascertain their experiences, views and suggestions regarding the implementation of the policy.
The findings of the study were 1. The period immediately after the close of the Second World War was one in which no serious long- term policy measures relating to education in general and elementary education in particular could be contemplated. 2. With the return to power of the Indian National Congress a conspicuous change was noticed in the primary education programme. 3. In view of the constitutional directive to provide education to all children 6-14 years of age, the mid-day meals programme had become a boon to the poor children of the areas. It helped to a considerable extent in the increase of enrolment and retention of students of weaker section in schools. 4. The majority of the executives, headmasters and teachers did not have clear knowledge of the legal provisions of the policy. Only a few could mention some of the provisions vaguely. 5. Important provisions like preparing schemes, making declarations, enumerating the school going children, and enrolling them in schools were not effectively followed. 6. The entire state was taken as the specified area for implementation of the compulsory education scheme and all schools under different managements were treated as approved schools. 7. There was only one special school in the Warangal district for physically and mentally disabled children but no serious effort was being made to enrol all such children. 8. Except those who sought admission themselves no serious and sincere effort was made to enrol all children of the village. 9. The extension officer and deputy inspector of schools had not insisted on regular enumeration, enrolment, at- tendance and retention of children in schools for the last ten years; they confined themselves to advising the headmasters during school inspection. 10. Different processes of the legislation like taking penal action, issuing notice, conducting enquiry, passing attendance orders, prosecution in a court of law, etc., were not followed at all. 11. Headmasters and teachers did not show personal interest in accelerating enrolment and retention of children. 12. People preferred separate schools for girls, at least special amenities for girls in mixed schools to attract more girls. 13. There was agreement between teachers, executives and parents with regard to causes of poor enrolement and dropouts. 14. The role of the rural elite and village people in the compulsory education programme, in providing all required provisions for universal education was not encouraging.
1440. ACHARYYA, S.C.,Preprimary and Primary Education in Tripura and Cachar, Development and Problems, Ph.D. Edu., Gau. U., 1984
The main objective of the study was to evaluate the progress made in the field of preprimary and primary education in Tripura and Cachar with particular reference to plan periods (up to the Fifth Five Year Plan).
The study was historical, analytical and comparative in nature. To find out the development of preprimary education in Tripura and Cachar a brief review of the development of preprimary education in the world and in India was attempted. This was followed by an analyt- ical discussion of the growth of preprimary education during the successive plan periods in Tripura and Cachar. Similarly, to examine the growth of primary education the history of the growth of primary education in India, Assam, Cachar and in Tripura was reviewed. Finally, a, comparative assessment of the progress of preprimary and primary education in Tripura and Cachar was made. Materials were collected from a wide
RESEARCH IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION-ABSTRACTS 1261
variety of sources by diverse means such as interview, questionnaire field study and personal contact with educational administrators, inspecting officials, teachers, guardians, parents, students, social workers, presidents and members of the gram panchayats and the like. Information was also collected from relevant records, literature, etc. In order to maintain the representative nature of the data collected by survey, they were compared with relevant available records and confirmed by information obtained from official and non-official respondents.
The study mainly revealed: 1. As a result of the introduction of different schemes and due to the provision of increasing outlay in successive plan periods, there had been rapid expansion of preprimary and primary education in Tripura and Cachar in all the major sectors such as the number of schools, teachers and children. The scope of teachers' training and administrative machinery was enlarged. 2. During the first 20 years of independence the progress was most remarkable. In Tripura in 1947, 8 per cent of the children of school- going age attended schools and 20 years later the percentage had increased to 86 per cent and was expected to be 96 per cent in 1978- 79. 3. The total number of primary schools, excluding the attached sections, rose in Tripura to 1531 in 1976-77, against 404 in 1950-51. 4. Similar developments took place, particularly in the field of pri- mary education, in Cachar. This growth took place more as a result of opening of new schools than through the expansion of existing one. 5. This rapid quantitative expansion had given rise to a number of problems. Some of the important problems of primary education in Tripura and Cachar were inadequacy of teaching staff, problems of physical plants, problems of single-teacher schools, lack of properly qualified and trained teachers, lack of incentives in the schools, absence of adequate school-community relations, problems of ac- commodation for teachers, weak supervision and administration of primary education, working of the basic schools on non-basic lines and acute problems of wastage of primary education arising out of dropouts and stagnation. 6. The availability of textbooks in Tripura and Cachar left much scope for improvement. 7. There was no uniformity in respect of period of schooling in the primary stage of education in Tripura and Cachar. 8. The proportion of school-going children of the backward classes and tribal communities was relatively low. Universal primary education has remained a goal yet to be achieved.