It may be observed from Table 26.2 that quite a number of researches are concerned with the psychological aspects of vocational and technical education. Another significant concern of researchers in this field is the evaluation of on-going programmes of vocational and technical education.
Some other areas where a certain interest is displayed are curriculum studies, economics of education and educational management, school organization and administration. A review of all these studies is presented in the pages that follow.
Philosophy of Education, History of Education and Comparative
Education No study has been done from a philosophical perspective. Analytical and critical studies on theoretical issues concerning nature and uses of knowledge, choices before educators in regard to work and leisure in education, general vs vocational education, etc. have not been of interest to researchers. However, there have been a few studies in the history of vocational and technical education. J. Mangamma (1971) studied a few institutions concerned with practical education in agriculture, crafts and industries in the Madras Presidency region during the period 1854 to 1921. She attributed the growth of agricultural and technical education in the region to governmental policies on land and exports. Private interest was mostly in technical education. T.N. Barooh (1986) traced the development of polytechnic education in Assam during the period 1948 to 1978. He discovered that demand for technical manpower far exceeded supply. Some of the problems affecting polytechnics were: defective selection procedures. outmoded syllabi, poor administration, inept management of examinations, improper utilization of available facilities and dissatisfaction among teachers. The socio-economic status of successful polytechnic graduates as compared to that of their parents, remained more or less the same. G. Mohanty (1986) traced the growth of vocational education in the state of Orissa from 1947 to 1981. He also discovered that supply of vocational and technical skills always fell short of the demand. Women's enrolment was quite low and there was sex-typing of courses.
K.C. Bhatt (1972) critically compared the status of vocational education in West Germany and India. Secondary as well as primary data were used for the purpose. He discovered that the system was functioning very well in West Germany as observed through attitudes to manual labour, private support, relevance of courses, production of literature, teacher training balance between vocational and general education. India was found wanting in all these respects.
Psychological Foundations of Vocational Education As is true in general regarding research in the main discipline Education, so is it true in regard to the area of Vocational and Technical Education that, in quantitative terms, researches in the psychological foundations have dominated over the years. Several aspects of vocational and technical education which are of concern for psychologists and educational researchers with a psychological orientation are: admission testing (5), vocational/occupational aspirations (6), vocational maturity (4), vocational interest (6), attitudes and behaviour (5), vocational needs (1), aptitude and achievement (1), educational and vocational problems (1).
RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 1291
Admission Testing A psychological test consisting of five sub-tests with 105 items relating to verbal ability, numerical ability, natural sciences, health sciences, social sciences, was standardized on 1200 trainee- nurses of Calcutta by S. Chattopadhyaya (1979) for use in admissions for nursing courses. Through a comparative study of self-concept among 440 high-performing and poorly-performing nurses, H.F. Dastoor (1982) not only studied the relation between self-concept and job per- formance, but also developed a structured questionnaire consisting of 41 items and covering such aspects as dynamics of choice of nursing as a career, opinions and feeling about nursing as a career, educational backgrounds, efficiency on the job, knowledge of nursing activities, etc. which he used to enlist desirable and undesirable qualities among nurses that would be of use in admission of candidates for nursing course. High correlations were observed between high job proficiency and high self-concept as well as low job proficiency and low self- concept. The Slater Proficiency Scale was used to measure job performance.
K.S. Sidhu (1974) standardized a vocational interest inventory on 2100 successful XI class students of Punjab, taking 300 students in seven criteria groups: fine arts, agriculture, commerce, home science, humanities, medical, and non-medical courses. The purpose of stan- dardization was to provide a basis for diversifying students into different streams.
A selection test battery consisting of a general information sheet, a general ability test, a language usage test, a verbal ability test, and a numerical ability test for selection of pupils seeking admission in technical higher secondary schools of Delhi was developed by D.C. Joshi (1978), after standardizing it on 253 IX grade technical higher secondary schools.
Differences were observed in intelligence scores on artistic and leisure items than on occupational and practical items in the variety of tests used by S.L. Misra (1967) on 306 students of Aligarh Muslim University undergoing courses in humanities, natural sciences, teacher training, business and library science.
Vocational/Occupational Aspirations Vocational aspirations in the formative years of life are supposed to determine success in later life in regard to job satisfaction productivity, personality adjustment, etc. Several variables appear to fashion the nature and reality-orientation of such aspirations. Parental, occupational and social background, intelligence, school achievement, peer-group experiences, vocational guidance, etc. are some of the variables which may influence vocational aspirations. S.S. Chadha (1979) studied the vocational aspirations of 713 rural and urban school boys of Chandigarh and rural Punjab. He developed a Vocational Aspirations Blank and used other available tests. He discovered a high degree of vocational aspiration among children and parents. Pendharkar (1977) studied the occupational aspirations of 300 Hindu undergraduate students of Indore, through the case-study method. He also discovered the home atmosphere as an important factor in occupational aspiration. Knowledge of occupations and monetary returns from them was highly associated with the level of aspiration. A. Paul (1981) compared the motivational aspects of goal behaviour of 271 students in the academic stream (humanities, sciences) with 224 students in the vocational stream (agriculture, engineering, commerce), of XI and XII standards of higher secondary grade in and around Madras. Goal behaviour was defined in terms of goal perception, school-goal relevance, goal phantasy, locus of goal- control, goal-risk and goal-aspiration. Goal-aspiration was measured by Rotter's Level of Aspiration Board. Goal-related variables explained 73.1 per cent and 31.4 per cent of variations in scholastic achievement respectively of students in vocational and academic streams. Vocational stream students recorded high mean scores in goal aspiration and goal perception. D. Dabir (1986) studied the interaction of vocational aspirations with aptitudes and motivational patterns of 1080 9th, 10th and 11th grade boys and girls of Nagpur district. He used J.S. Grewal's Occupational Aspiration Scale along with other tools and a self-prepared SES scale. Predominant relations were discovered between vocational aspiration and SES, need achievement, need deference and need nurturance.
B.M. Singh (1984) studied the job satisfaction of 571 males and 70 female LIC employees with different levels of education in relation to job aspirations and pre-job aspirations, apart from other variables such as duration of education length of service and clerical. efficiency. He discovered that only 12 per cent of the clerical workers ever thought of becoming clerks; job aspirations escalated with levels of education. Investigating: the factors affecting the occupational aspirations of 98 girls and 202 boys of class X of 11 schools in Delhi and through a multiple regression technique, J.S. Gaur (1973) discovered that intelligence, type of school, age
1292 A.S. SEETHARAMU AND K. SUDHA RAO
and scholastic achievement of students were significantly related. SES turned out to be significant when intelligence was held under control.
Vocational Maturity Does vocational maturity, defined in terms of awareness, knowledge and understanding of the world of works, grow over a period of time or flash at a point of time? How is it influenced by age, personality factors, perception of one's own abilities, intelligence, parentage, career guidance, etc.? Will any intervention programmes be of use in development of vocational maturity? These and similar questions will be of value in planning a programme of vocational or technical educa- tion. H. Chand (1979) studied the correlates of vocational maturity of 480 boys and girls of urban and rural high schools of Chandigarh. Apart from using other tests, he developed a Career Maturity Inventory, a Competence Test and a Vocational Aptitude Scale. In- telligence, self-concept, education, income and occupation of parents, scholastic achievement, and certain personality factors showed significant relationships with vocational maturity.
Treating sex, intelligence and n-achievement as control variables, P.K. Tulsi (1983) studied, in an experimental setting, the differential effects of career guidance strategies on vocational maturity patterns. Twelve groups of students each, with varying combinations of levels of intelligence and n-achievement among both sexes, were used as experimental and control groups. H. Chand's Career Maturity Inventory was used along with other tools. The group which received treatment in both self-awareness and occupational information proved better in realizing vocational maturity than those who were treated with only one of these techniques. Higher vocational maturity was realized by both sexes with low and average rather than high intelligence scores.
Working with 75 boys and 75 girls each of VIII, IX, X and XI standards of Gujarati-medium schools of Baroda city, R.K. Parlikar (1973) discovered that intelligence and achievement in schools were associated with measures of vocational maturity. Neurosis, self- sufficiency, introversion-extroversion, dominance-submission (personality factors), showed inconsistent relationships with vocational maturity. Sex differences were observed. Vocational maturity had been defined in terms of choice competency, choice attitude and choice consistency.
Using a self-made questionnaire and other standard tests, R.K. Reddy (174) studied the role of rural-urban and socioeconomic factors in the development of vocational sense among 1103 IX, X and XI grade boys. Middle-level socioeconomic groups displayed knowledge of a distinctively higher number of occupations. Agreement between choice of occupations and self-concept was high among urban students. Occupational choices increased from grade to grade.
Vocational Interest An interesting area for research in vocational education is development of vocational interest among students. This is of value for educational planners, curriculum-designers, career-guidance personnel and educational administrators. Vocational interests influence vocation maturity and vocational choices in later life which, in turn, affect job satisfaction and optimization of job performance. S.J. Saheb (1980) studied, in a comparative frame work, the vocational interests of 455 boys in the vocational stream and 532 boys in the academic stream of English-medium higher secondary schools of Tamil Nadu. Students' academic and non-academic abilities provided the context of study. Vocational interests in ten areas were considered. An adapted version of Thurstone's Interest Schedule. was used along with other tools and school-ratings. Marked differences were observed between the academic abilities and vocational interests of the two streams of students. Students of the academic stream were better in academic abilities, leadership, writing and science talent, and displayed interest in physical and biological sciences. Students of the vocational stream displayed interest in business and computation; they were better in social service, music, games and sports. Choice of stream did not depend on the socioeconomic status of the students.
J.C. Sinha (1978) examined the role of the family in terms of parent-child relations, parental values, and, SES in shaping the vocational interests of students. Thurstone's interest schedule and other tools were used on 460 male higher secondary students of Mathura and Agra cities. The results are quite interesting. A healthy home (amicable parent-child relations) kindled love for scientific and executive fields. Parental avoidance coupled with high economic and social values led to interest in computational, business and persuasive fields. Absence of parental democratic values and non- acceptance of children were associated with interest in artistic and musical fields.
Working with 400 boys and 200 girls of class XII in Eastern UP, J.P.S. Tomar (1985) discovered that sex,
RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION-A TREND REPORT 1293
rural-urban residence and SES were determinant factors in the occupational interests of adolescents. Occupational interests conformed to the trends in the job market. A comparative study of 180 institutionalized and 540 non-intitutionalized adolescents of both sexes from upper, middle and lower social strata was made by Mary John (1981) to understand the relation between vocational interest and self-concept as well as perceptions about the furture. Kulshreshta's Vocational Interest Record and other tools were used. It was observed that vocational interests of adolescents were directly related to their socioeconomic status. Middle class adolescents had a more stable self-concept and extended future orientation. The ideal-actual discrepancy in self-concept was greater among institutionalized than among non-institutionalized lower strata of adolescents. H. Bhatnagar (1983) discovered that vocational interest was the chief factor in determining occupational choice among adolescent girls. This was pronounced among girls belonging to higher income groups. Urban and semi-urban differences were not significant. Girls displayed diversified vocational choices.
C.P. Mathur (1975) was essentially interested in preparing a projective tool and establishing norms to predict vocational interest in the fields of medicine, engineering and teaching. He developed a tool using the free expression drawings technique among 75 trainees and 75 in-service personnel from urban Rajasthan, and prepared stanine-grade norms for each of the three vocations and for vocational interests in general.
Attitudes and Behaviour Attitudes towards (i) work and leisure, course content in vocational education, relative values of vocations, one's own capabilities among students, (ii) vocational or technical education among parents, community leaders, and especially teachers, of such courses are quite significant in success of vocational education and personal adjustment of students and teachers. Career guidance programmes need to consider the prevailing attitudes among students and teachers. Several factors are associated with the development of attitudes. B.G. Bhandarkar (1980) studied the interaction of age, qualifications, training, jobmobility and family problems with the attitudes of polytechnic teachers towards the teaching profession. He used a self-standardized Thurstone-type 50-item scale on 400 urban, semi urban and rural teachers from 18 polytechnics of Maharashtra to study attitudes towards teaching, content, training, students, colleagues, institution and administration. One significant finding was that training of polytechnic teachers rather than their qualifications had a signifi- cant association with favourable attitudes. B.G. Kulkarni (1975) discovered that a great majority of parents, teachers and pupils held favourable attitudes towards work experience programmes in IV to VII standards. Drawing was most preferred and spinning was least preferred by both boys and girls. While boys preferred gardening girls preferred sewing. P.N. Kaul (1970) used a self-standardized Likert-type attitude scale to measure the attitudes of 159 final year students of Punjab Agricultural University towards various stages of extension education. The SES of students rather than age and academic achievement was significantly associated with attitudes towards extension education. Centrality in the communication network was wel- comed at early stages of extension education while it was disliked at later stages.
Treating age, socio-economic status and marital status as intervening variables, Ved Kakkar (1983) studied the impact of vocational attitudes, interests and work values on the job satisfaction of 800 women belonging to teaching, mechanical, clerical and medical occupations in BHEL, Bhopal. In addition, the occupational aspirations of these women were compared with those of 113 higher secondary girl students in vocational streams. Age, educational level, vocational attitudes and work values turned out to have positive and significant relationships with job satisfaction. Significant differences were observed between job satisfaction as well as work attitudes and vocational interests of women in different occupations. Age and SES had a significant relation with vocational interests and occupational aspirations of girl students.
S. Gupta (1978) conducted an experimental study of the impact of vocational training on behaviour of adolescents in terms of attitudes towards work and improved work performance, Three groups of 40 IX standard male students each of a school from Kota, Rajasthan, were formed. While one of them was kept under control, the other two were treated with vocational training. One of the experimental groups was given reinforcement in addition to training. The investigator prepared his own tools. The results showed that, while training alone led to positive improvements, the impact was higher when reinforcement was coupled with training. However, the impact was more pronounced in the case of punctuality and completion than in the case of precision and concentration.
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Vocational Needs Though an understanding of the vocational needs of students is of value in planning vocational education and guidance programmes, it is observed that only one study has been completed on this topic. A.V.R. Reddy (1972) studied vocational needs in relation to the occupational choices of 3600 IX, X and XI grade students. He observed that, while social and economic status of students were significantly related to their vocational needs, occupational choices had significant relationship with their social status only.