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1984; Sethamarai, 1984; Narayana, 1986; Luthra; (1986). The relationship between various factors, viz., education, family size, social class, teacher-training, population awareness, number of siblings, birth order, etc., have been explored in other types of studies (Kaur, 1985, Saxena, 1985; Narayan, 1986).
Three studies pertaining to the education of women deal with the occupational and socioeconomic background of women students at the university level (Sehgal, 1979); status of women education in Jammu & Kashmir State (Gupta; 1982); and incongruencies and tensions in the process of the education of girls in the context of modem urban India (Varinda, 1987).
The studies pertaining to the sociology of education have, so far, yeilded few educational implications in the sociological perspective. Some important issues like social changes, population explosion and changes, demographic trends, and the impact of political and social pressures on the educational system in the Indian context, have been totally neglected. Moreover, no worthwhile attempt has been made to study the relation of education with the economy and polity; the educational needs of different communities in their social and cultural perspective; problems relating to tribal culture, the rural community, community development, industrialization and urbanization; educational aims, curriculum content, methods and techniques in the teaching-learning process conducive to socioeconomic and politico- cultural situations prevailing in the country; problems of the classroom as a social system; and obstacles and constraints in the inculcation of democratic and secular values among children and youth.
History of Education Research at the M.Phil. level pertaining to the history of education has received little attention. Only 24 studies at this level in this area have been conducted during 1973-87. The number of studies in this field reported during 1983-87 is more than double that for the decade 1973-82. The nature of the studies indicates that the emphasis has been mostly on the growth and development of education in different cities, districts or states in post-independence period. These include studies the development of school education (Chauhan, 1979; Kataria, 1980; Minerva, 1985; Patil, 1986; Ahmad, 1987); higher education (Kaur, 1979); education in general (Singh, 1979; Jadhav, 1984; Ramnarayan, 1986); teacher education (Akhtar, 1983); and art education (Bose, 1987). However, a few studies pertain to the growth of education during the pre-independence period also (Nirmala, 1983; Sarawade, 1984; Muruganantham, 1987; Bhokta, 1987). A couple of studies relate to the development of education in the perspective of some foreign countries (Das, 1986; Pararajesingam, 1980). Only one study has explored the contribution of missionaries towards education in India (Melba, 1987).
Keeping in view the long heritage and multiplicity of social, cultural, linguistic and religious groups in India, the number of studies in the history of education at M.Phil. is quite small." Almost all the studies pertain to the historical development of education in a given area and within a small, specified period. The history of education in ancient India and medieval India has been completely ignored. Moreover, not a single study has been undertaken to explore the impact of industrialization on education; the impact of social, political and religious movements on education; education of women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes during a specified period and in a specified area; and the history of education in the content of urbanisation.
Comparative Education Looking at the area-wise distribution of M.Phil. researches shown in Table 31.1, it is clear that the study of educational systems of different countries in comparative perspective has remained a neglected area. In all, eight studies-in this area were undertaken during 1973-87. These studies include comparative studies of educa- tional systems in Kenya and the Punjab State of India, (Kaushal, 1982); curriculum development strategies in the UK, USA and India at the higher secondary stage (Gakhar, 1980); administration of higher education in Thailand and India (Phangcham, 1981); status of continuing education in India and Britain (Suri, 1981); educational policies in Japan and India (Taploor, 1984); aims of higher education in India and Somalia (Sahal, 1985); and approaches to non-formal education in developing countries (Singh, 1985).
The trend of the studies in comparative education completed during 1973-87 indicates that there is hardly any study on crucial issues relating to education for development; education for multicultural societies; education of the socially, economically and culturally disadvantage; vocationalization of education; education of ethnic minorities; non-formal education; teacher-education programmes; and distance education, con-
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ducted in the comparative perspective. Moreover, comparative studies on different aspects of education covering different states and Union territories at the national level are also practically absent.
Economics of Education The economics of education is an important area of educational research devoted as it is to applying the principles of efficiency of the educational system at different levels and to identifying the role of education in social and economic development. But the research ef- fort at the M.Phil. level in this area does not present an encouraging picture as only 19 studies were completed during the period 1973-87. Table 31.1 indicates that only one study in this area was conducted in the first five years of the period, 1973-77, and that the number of studies in the entire decade of 1978-87 is only 18. Five of these studies deal with cost-benefit analysis, educational and unit costs, expenditure and investment. These; include a study of the growth of Madurai Kamraj University with respect to institutional cost and enrolment (Nagendiran, 1981); unit cost and efficiency of certain colleges (Rajapushpam, 1981); parents' investment on primary education (Khaguli, 1984); private cost of elementary education of girls in a rural setting (Duggal, 1985); and growth rates of enrolment and ex- penditure (Kayarkanni, 1985).
Studies pertaining to other issues include correspondence education and economy (Gupta, 1978); the role of science and technology in economic growth (Srivastava, 1979); earning differentials among employees of selected sectors (Srinivasan, 1981); profiles and priorities in educational planning (Kumar, 1982); plan- ning for compulsory elementary education (Jain, 1982); manpower planning and the position of professional education (Kaloo, 1983); factors affecting response to educational opportunities in a slum locality (Patwardhan, 1983); educational growth and economic growth (Dhanaraj, 1983); impact of free mid-day meal on education (Chinnappan, 1985); and trend analysis of educational growth and estimations of material requirements (Verma, 1985).
From a perusal of the studies in the economics of education, it is evident that practically no worthwhile endeavour has been made to study problems pertaining to human capital formation; manpower planning; education and economic development at state, regional and national levels; the role of central government, local bodies and private enterprise in education; expenditure in primary, secondary, higher, technical and professional education at the state and national levels; disparities in financing education in the states and trends in educational expenditure; evaluation of low-cost alternative systems of education; educated unemployment; and the economics of educational reforms and innovations.
Learning, Motivation and Personality Learning, motivation and personality are at the core of educational psychology. Because of the application of theories of learning and motivation in the teaching-learning process involving personality characteristics and adjustment of learners and teachers, the number of research studies pertaining to these themes has been greater in comparison with other areas. It will be seen from Table 31.1 that 161 studies in this area were completed during 1973-87. The number of studies in the first five-year period, 1973-77, is significantly low. However, it increased considerably in the dacade 1978-87.
The studies may be classified in various categories. One category relates to learning and development (Amreeta, 1979; Kour 1981; Kang, 1984; Panigrahi, 1984; Rajeshwari, 1984; Shahi, 1984; Kumari, 1985; Pani, 1985; Swain, 1985; Tawade, 1985; Ahmad, 1986; Pandh, 1986; Pavithran, 1986; Zambre, 1986; Kour, 1987). A new trend in the study of cognitive development processes in the Piagetian perspective has also caught the attention of a few researchers (Katiyar, 1978; Sunderarajan, 1981; Chikara, 1984; Mishra. 1985; Sapra, 1986; Gupta, 1987). Although no systematic attempt seems to have been made to study the role of motivation In learning, some studies of a descriptive nature have been conducted in this area (Dutt, 1979; Raina, 1979; Isher, 1980; Mahapatra, 1980; Sareen, 1980; Deka, 1983; Kour, 1984; Kohli, 1984; Malhotra, 1985; Sandhu, 1985; Chahal, 1987).
A second category pertains to descriptive surveys and correlational studies of learner characteristics and environmental variables, viz., intelligence, personality traits, and adjustments, creativity, values, needs, self-concept, anxiety, aggression, self- esteem, locus of control, interests, frustration, attitudes, socio- economic status, family environment, residential background, mental health, level of aspiration. etc. (Sahu 1978; Dagaur, 1978; Singh, 1977; Nutan, 1979; Khurana, 1979; Ambardar. 1979; Mohan, 1979; Sharma, 1979; Soloman, 1979; Vaid, 1979; Maitra, 1980; Chawla. 1980; Gautam, 1980; Mohanta. 1980; P-------
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1980; Sareen, 1980; Verma, 1980; Trakroo, 1980; Kundu, 1981; Meena, 1981; Kumar, 1981; Mehta, 1981; Tripathi, 1981; Ahmad, 1986; Gupta, 1982; Patel, 1982; Seenapati, 1982; Padham, 1982; Suresh, 1982; Sushil, 1982; Gandotra, 1982; Khan, 1982; Magray, 1982; Kiran, 1982; Bhat, 1982; Panda, 1983; Pattanayak, 1983; Verma, 1983; Razdan, 1983; Kumari, 1983; Dixit, 1983; Sharma, 1983; Koul, 1984; Jena, 1984; Mohanty, 1984; Sahoo, 1984; Varimee, 1984; Kak, 1984; Dhar, 1984; Ahuja, 1984; Odyuo, 1985; Singh, 1985; Thilaka, 1985; Saproo, 1985; Bai, 1986; Mohanti, 1986; Dalbehera, 1987; Mishra, 1987; Devi, 1987; Chopra, 1987). A few studies in this category also relate to personality patterns of various socio-metric groups (Kohli, 1984; Singh, 1985; Gill, 1986).
A third category of experimental studies is concluded with the effect of oral and written advance organizers on learning from text (Barik, 1980); the effect of verbal classroom behaviour of different types of teachers on retention (Zarger, 1992); the effect of instructional questions on retention (Rana, 1983); the management of test anxiety by reciprocal inhibition therapy (Malika, 1984); the effect of yoga technique on speed on learning (Chhatra, 1985), and the effects of different models of concept attainment on the achievement of students with different cognitive styles (Prasad, 1986).
Although the number of the research studies in the areas of learning, motivation and personality is significantly large, they seem to have few educational implications for the teaching-learning process in the Indian context. Moreover, hardly any study in these areas in- volving longitudinal and case study approaches has been undertaken. Work motivation of students and teachers; efficacy of programmes for enhancing achievement motivation among students; concept formation and curriculum designing for different grade-levels; effectiveness of programmes for enhancing school adjustment of students through environmental variations; cultural communication; and mental health of students have been practically neglected.
Guidance and Counselling Due to an increasing demand for guidance and counselling services in- schools, colleges and universities, the guidance movement in India has picked up considerable momentum. However, research in this area at the M.Phil. level is hardly satisfactory. It may be seen from Table 3 1.1 that, in all, 35 studies in the area of guidance and counselling were undertaken during 1973-87. Most of these pertain to occupational aspirations, choices and preferences (Archna, 1980; Singh, 1981; Sidhu, 1983; Ahmad, 1987); vocational attitudes, interests and maturity (Kumar, 1979; Takshak, 1984; Misra, 1984; Mangat, 1984; Porus, 1985; Sindhu, 1985; Singh, 1985); study habits (Seetharam, 1977; Singh, 1979; Sharma, 1979); subject choices (Kaur, 1983; Lamba, 1985); and educational aspirations (Verma, 1982; Kaur, 1984) of students at the school level. Two studies deal with the theme of counselling at the school level. One relates to the impact of counselling on neglectees and isolates (Rather, 198 1) and another to the effect of individual counselling on the achievement of bright under-achievers (Khan, 1987). There is only one study on an evaluative nature pertaining to the evaluation of the personnel services of Delhi University (Sathe, 198 1). The studies on psycho- social correlates of job-satisfaction of anganwadi workers (Lekhi, 1986); vocationalization at the +2 stage in India (Samarakoon, 1986); and education, occupation and morale of railway employees (Ganesan, 1987) are also worth mentioning.
A perusal of research studies in the area of guidance and counselling over 1983-87 at M.Phil. level reveals certain serious gaps. There is hardly any study pertaining to the evaluation and follow-up of guidance and counselling activities, and guidance personnel preparation programmes. Studies on the effectiveness of individual counselling in relation to specific problems of students at the school, college and university levels have been practically neglected. No worthwhile research effort seems to have been made for exploring the guidance and counselling needs of school, college and university students; the educational and vocational needs of ex- ceptional children, handicapped children and children belonging to disadvantaged communities; and the implications of vocationalization at the +2 stage.
Evaluation, Tests and Examinations Although problems pertaining to evaluation, tests and examinations at different levels of instruction are of vital importance at the national level, yet the number of studies in this area at M.Phil. level is not impressive. Table 31.1 indicates that only 40 studies have been reported during the period 1973-87. Only two studies were undertaken in the first five-year period, 1973-77, and the rest of during the decade 1978-87.
In the studies relating to test development the emphasis has been on tests measuring locus of control
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(Mohapatra, 1981); socio-economic status (Visvas, 1982); vocational interests (Selvamuthu, 1982); creativity (Shan, 1983); attitudes (Pradhan, 1985); achievement; and norm referenced and criterion referenced tests (Bala, 1985; Singh, 1985; Dash, 1985; Godbole, 1985; Kulkar 1987). Construction of diagnostic tests and preparation of appropriate remedial instructional programmes have also caught the attention of a few researchers (Pingle, 1986; Jagtap, 1986; Borude, 1986; Angal, 1987; Wagh, 1987).
Some significant issues and problems concerning several aspects of evaluation and the examination system have also been explored. These include studies pertaining to re-evaluation at the university stage (Patel, 1978; Singh, 1980); innovations in the examination sys- tem at school or university stage (Bhatnagar, 1978; Bhardwaj, 1979); internal and external systems of evaluation (Gupta, 1978; Gupta, 1981); question banks in different school subjects (Ahmad, 1986); and evaluation procedure at the primary stage (Parda, 1986).
A couple of investigations of an experimental nature pertain to the effects of unit tests on retention, achievement motivation and the test anxiety of school students (Bhadwal, 1979); the effect of continuous evaluation and feedback on achievement (Srivastava, 1982); and the comparative effectiveness of verbal and non-verbal methods of assessment and acceleration on the development of the concept of number among young children (Gupta, 1983).
From a perusal of the studies it is evident that the focus of research in test development has been almost exclusively on secondary school students. At the school level also there is hardly any test which has been constructed specially for use on children living in hill, backward and tribal areas. Studies relating to the problems of mass copying and the use of other unfair means in examinations; the grade system of marking; orientation of paper setters; setting of good question papers and evaluation of answer-books; reliability and validity of external examinations and school, college and university levels, use and effectiveness of unannounced tests; the semester system; farmative evaluation; and evaluation in the context of non- formal and distance education are practically absent.
Curriculum, Methods and Textbooks The role of curriculum, teaching methods and textbooks is well recognized in the total teaching-learning process. Meaningful research in these areas provides a sound basis for developing well- designed curriculum, preparing good textbooks, and evolving effective instructional strategies. But the research in this area received very little attention in the decade 1973-82. It is evident from Table 3 1.1 that the number of studies increased quite speedily in the quinquennium 1983-8 7. In all, 64 studies at M.Phil. level on curriculum, methods and textbooks were conducted during the period 1973-87.
In the context of curriculum research, a number of researchers have analysed the curriculum at school, college and university levels in different subjects in various parts of the country (Gupta, 198 1; Rajdan, 1982; Ibrahim, 1982; Awaneendra, 1982; Selvaraju, 1985; Jothi, 1986; Pandya, 1986; Reddy, 1986; Chetanlal, 1987; Nongrum, 1987). A few studies pertain to curriculum analysis and development of professional courses (Jayalakshmi, 1978; Bhat, 1982; Yadav, 1983; Dora 1984; Puri; 1985; Dandavate, 1986; Behari, 1987).
On the understanding that a curriculum programme is brought into action through appropriate instructional strategy, some researches studying the comparative effectiveness of different techniques and methods have also been undertaken. These studies cover the efficacy of the discussion-cum-demonstration method (Pathania, 1985); the Piagetian model (Senapaty, 1985); the Bruner and Ausubel models (Kaur, 1986); the information processing model (Kaur, 1986); the non- directive model (Sahani, 1986); reception and selection oriented models of concept attainment (Sohani, 1986); the jurisprudential inquiry model (Gangrade, 1987); the inductive thinking model (Hota, 1987); and the advance organiser model (Rajoria, 1987) on the achievement and learning of students in comparison with the efficacy of conventional methods of teaching. The effects of brainstorming on divergent thinking (Sharma, 1980) and development of creativity using synetics (Venkataraman, 1985) have also been studied.