idea of men and women as they ploughed their fields, tended their homes, built their towns or sailed their ships. We get into the spirit of our people by acquiring control over the language.

Literature quickens and enlarges the human spirit. It appeals to the imagination of the child and imparts a, sense of the inexhaustible richness of human personality and_ the immense complexity of human relationships.

Arts like music and painting help to educate our emotions and impart a certain grace in living. Men of taste will abhor ugliness, squalor and vulgarity.

Any course of education intended to prepare men and women for the business of living should include philosophical studies, which deal with conduct and the ends of life. However well-informed we may be in general knowledge, however technically efficient we may be in our special vocations, if we are not acquainted with the roots of our past, if we do not have an understanding of what is called the 'wisdom of the ages' our education falls short of its true ideals. It would indeed be very strange if we neglect Philosophy, art and literature at a time when civilisation is in danger, not from any poverty of material resources or the power to use them but from want of the knowledge and the spirit to use them rightly. Our present condition is in part due to the failure of our education to cope with moral and spiritual uncertainties. Human values are, not a part of nature in the sense in which stones and plants are and yet they can be studied scientifically. If intellectual fragmentation and anarchy are to be avoided, the student must acquire a frame of reference which will give meaning and direction to his college work as he moves from class to class to study different subjects. The different studies should be treated as parts of a whole. There must be an intellectual integration of his varied knowledge.

13. Natural Sciences, Social Studies and Humanities-The divisions of subjects into sciences, social studies and humanities are not exclusive. It will be wrong to assume that science is amoral or indifferent to values. Science is not to be taught, as something external to man. It is one of the greatest of the creations of the human spirit. It provides the material basis of the good life. Its aim is not only utility or success but the pursuit of truth. Its essence is careful observation of facts, rigid conscientiousness in inference and elimination of personal prejudice and passion. Its method is to follow the argument where it leads and its goal is to see things as they are. Its ideal is the same as that of philosophy, the vision of reality. Till recently scientific studies were treated as philosophical disciplines. Even now "Philosophical Transactions"

of the Royal Society deal with scientific investigations. Similarly when we study language, the relations of words to meanings, the construction of sentences, the, method we adopt is that of science. Panini's work on Grammar (6th century B.C.) is unsurpassed as a scientific, study of the facts of language.

Broadly speaking, the, three divisions deal with facts, events and values. Their methods are different, though they are used in all studies in different degrees. While scrupulous attention to fact is the method of science, imaginative insight is also needed for scienti- fic work. Mere heaping of data is not knowledge. In the realm of values, objective analysis of complex situations is necessary for proper appreciation. In history we need a judicious blend of factual observation and judgment,. Whatever be our subject of study, we must be able to observe carefully, think effectively and use our judgment properly.

Any one who wishes to live intelligently in the modern world should have some knowledge of selected materials from the three fields of (1) Science and Technology (2) Social studies including History (3) Humanities including language and literature, fine arts, ethics, philosophy and religion. Our education is incomplete if it is limited to the knowledge of the masterpieces of thought and imagination, ignoring altogether other expressions of the human spirit, the exact sciences.1

14. Unity of Mind and Interdependence of Knowledge education is to guide the individual towards the comprehension of the art of life, it must energise his whole being and give him ideas of nature, society and values. Human mind is a unity and all knowledge is interdependent. In a sense every study should excite and satisfy the different mental powers. It must give, the pupils intellectual vision, aesthetic enjoyment and practical power.

Education must look to the whole man. Karl Marx says "The education of the, future will in the case of every child over a certain age, combine productive labour with education (unterricht)

1. The list of subjects mentioned in the Chandogya Upanisad, 8th Century B.C., includes literature, history, philosophy, religion, mathematics and astronomy, practical arts, military science.

rgvedam, yajurvedam, samavedam, atharavadam, itihasapuranam vedanam vedampitryam, rasim, daivam, nidhim, vakovakyam, ekayanam, devavidyam, brahmavidyam. bhutavidyam ksatravidyam, naksatravidyam sarpadevajanavidyam.

VII.I

In the University of Taksasila (Taxila) which was famous even in the 7th century B. C. and attracted scholars from many parts of India and was known in Greece, the subjects taught included philosophy and literature. medicine and surgery, archery and military arts, agriculture and commerce. Special schools for grammar, law and astronomy, medicine and surgery were established by the fifth century B.C.

and athletics (gymnastik) not merely as one of the methods of raising social production but as the only method of producing fully developed human beings."' On this question of learning through doing Marx and Gandhi agree. Whether we are being introduced to the delights of literature, or the wonders of science, or the pride of craftsmanship our whole being must be at work. Only then is ,education turned into joy triumphing over weariness and -pain.

While a general understanding of the scientific, method, of the history of our society and the world and literature which feeds our imagination and stabilises our emotional life is to be regarded as a part of general education for all, professional education trains the students for competence in an occupation. Education has among others this double aim of preparing for a particular vocation and also for citizenship in a democratic community. These two ends are not exclusive of each other. If knowledge is power all education is both pure and professional.

The vocation may well require specialisation in humanities or social sciences. Professional education is different from general education, not so much in its subject matter as in its method, outlook and objective. To give a basic understanding of the principles of science, history and literature is the aim of the general course; to train experts in them is the aim of the specialised course.

15. Mechanical Learning-The process of education becomes dull and boring if we are unable to interest the live minds of the students. What they learn unwillingly becomes dead knowledge which is worse than ignorance. Learning is an activity of thought. It is not stuffing the mind with facts. We must be able to use what we learn, test it, throw it into fresh combinations. It must become vibrant with power, radiant with light.2

16. Inwardness of Freedom-There are not many to-day who hold that the concern of the college is primarily with the intellect and little, if at all, with the fashioning of character, the building of personality. While the conservation and advancement of learning is a dominant purpose of the universities, they should also aim at raising the personal quality of its members and make them seek the good life. A free society is composed of free citizens and men are not free simply because they are freed from external restraints. True freedom

1 Das Kapital 8th ed. (1928) I. 425 sadasucih karuhastah which exalts the dignity of a manual worker who is hold to be always pure.

2 tejasvinav adhitam astu. Cp. Yaska's Nirukta (1-18) "The person who is able only to recite the Veda (adhitya) but does not understand its meaning is like a post or &'more bearer of a load. For the words that are simply memorised and not understood will merely sound when uttered, and not enlighten, just as wood, be it never so dry will not blaze if it is put into what is not fire".

is inward, a function of mind and spirit. This inner fearlessness is the affirmation of human individuality. The recognition that a human being is a free moral agent with the right and capacity to choose between truth and error, good and evil, is the essence of freedom. We may make a wrong choice but true democracy concedes to us the right to choose wrongly.1

A human being lives in the world of nature but apprehends a world of values. We can break him on the wheel, burn him at the stake, bury him alive in a concentration camp or crucify him, but we cannot make him lie or steal or betray the cause he believes in. Our education should encourage the development in its members of fearlessness of mind, strength of conscience and integrity of purpose. If human life is to remain human, it must deepen and live by a sense of moral obligation. Without moral freedom there can be no true democracy. Freedom and justice in the world depend on there being enough men and women who say "We will obey God rather than men". For the sake of the soul we may sometimes have to abandon the world.2

Plato says in his Apology: "A man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living and dying; he ought only to consider whether in doing anything he is doing right or wrong-acting the part of a good man or a bad " 3 The period of studentship, brahmacharya, was looked upon in India, as a time of' learning and discipline. It is a way of life, of spirit. In the Christian Gospel we are warned not to be afraid of them that kill the body but are not able to kill the soul.

17. Education as Initiation into a New Life-Education, according to the Indian tradition, is not merely a means to earning a living; nor is it only a nursery of thought or a school for citizenship. It is initiation into the life of spirit, a training of human souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue. It is a second birth, divitiyam janma.

18. Inadequacy of Education as Adjustment to Society-It is of course true that we should mould students to a pattern that is sanc- tioned by the past if society, is not to become discontinuous. Edu- cation is a means by which society perpetuates itself. In 1852 Newman defined the function of the university thus: 'If a practical end must be assigned to a university course, then I say it is

1 "If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind", said J.S. Mill in his work on LIBERTY.

2 atmarthe prthivim tyajet.

3 1.28.

training good members of society".' No system of education could be directed to the weakening of the State that maintains it. But education is also an instrument for social change. It should not be its aim merely to enable us to adjust ourselves to the social environ- ment. We must train people not merely to be citizens but also to be individuals. Many systems of education tend to transform the individual, who might otherwise seek to rise above the type, into the representative of the community. On such a scheme we cannot get leaders, who with new values transform the community. There is no stimulus to individuality, to being in any respect distinct or different from one's surroundings. The aim of education should be to break ground for new values and make them possible.

19. Flexibility of the Educational System-The institutions of democracy must be flexible, capable of adaptation to the changing needs and conditions of men. We must make modifications whenever we feel that changes are necessary to realise more effectively the ends of individual development and social welfare.

Educational systems are built for a time and not for all time There are no changeless ways of educating human nature. A curriculum which has vitality in the Vedic period or the Renaissance cannot continue unaltered in the 20th Century. Realising that the vision of free men in a free society is the living faith and inspiring guide of democratic institutions, we must move towards that goal adapting wisely and well to changing conditions.

III.-Justice

20. Social Justice-Even as we cannot break up the human person into separate mental faculties, we cannot separate the individual from society. Social justice is the foundation of States and it, demands that we create a society which is freed from the evils which it is within human power to banish. If all men are entitled to all equal chance to be free from want, fear and ignorance, we cannot sit quiet and contented when millions of our fellowmen continue to live in poverty, disease, hunger and ignorance. If we are to demonstrate, not by words, but by deeds, that the democratic way of life is superior to the totalitarian, we must raise the material standards of life and increase national productivity by the larger use of scientific dis- coveries and technical applications. After the October Revolution of 1917, Soviet Russia, wiped out illiteracy, raised the educational level of the masses, built and equipped scientific institutes and laboratories and transformed the country with new industries and a new type of agriculture.

1 The Scope and Nature of University Education. Discourse 6.

21. The Present Needs-There is great disparity between what our country requires and what our education offers. We produce a large number of arts and law graduates, but not enough teachers, administrators, doctors, engineers, technicians, scientific researchers and the like. On account of their expensive character we have neglected the scientific and technical courses.

22. Agricultural Education-The vast majority of our people are engaged in agriculture and our position in regard to food production is pathetic. While Great Britain which is highly industrialised has attempted progressively to reduce her imports of food from overseas and increase her own food production, India where 70 per cent of the people are engaged in agriculture imported 1 1/2 million tons of food grains in 1946, 2 million tons in 1947, 3 million tons in 1948 and threatens to import 41 million tons in 1949 at a cost of 200 crores of rupees. While we with 70 per cent of our population working on farms are unable to produce enough food even at the subsistence level for our population, the United States of America of whose working population only 13 per cent work on farms, provides food at a high level not only for her entire population but for a large part of the rest of the world. The output of rice per acre in India is about 1,000 lbs. only as against 2,500 lbs. in China and 3,000 lbs. in Japan. What is possible in China and Japan must be possible in India. We have neglected the countryside, disrupted the village communities and destroyed rural initiative. If we wish to increase our food production, we must train the farmers and utilise the results of scientific research in agriculture in the fields.

23. Technological Education-Our leaders have drawn up ambitious plans for the industrialisation of our country involving expenditure of crores of rupees. They wish to improve communications, develop systems of irrigation, distribute electricity to the villages. They have large schemes for the improvement of health and sanitation. If these schemes are to be realised, we have to increase the number of professional colleges, agricultural, medical and engineering to produce the requisite number of graduates and set up throughout the country technical schools which will supply the much larger number of technicians needed for the purpose. For a fuller realisation of the democratic principles of justice and freedom for all, we need growth in science and technology. The presence of the suffering millions, tired, discontented, mentally inefficient is a challenge to us. Where human action can remove the evils, inaction has the guilt of vice.

24. Rural Development-The industrialisation of the country should take into account the fact that the large majority of our people live in villages. As far back as 1830 Sir Charles Metcalfe wrote about the village communities in these words: "They seem to last where nothing else lasts. The union of the village communities, each one forming a separate little state in itself, has, I conceive, contributed more than any other cause to the preservation of the people of India through all revolutions and changes which they have suffered, and it is in a high degree conducive to their happiness and to the enjoyment of a great portion of freedom and independence. I wish, therefore, that village constitutions may never be disturbed and I dread everything that has a tendency to break them up". They have been broken up. We have to revive them to-day and, make them, as far as possible, self-sustaining. Cottage industries and small co- operatives require to be developed and machines to lighten the labours of men living in cottages. "If we could have electricity in every village home, I shall not mind villagers plying, their implements and tools with electricity" said Gandhi.

We need heavy large scale industries for power, mining, metal- lurgy, oil, machinery and machine tools, automobiles, locomotives, shipbuilding, aircraft, heavy chemicals, pharmaceuticals. These are to be located by the State in centres selected for the availability of raw materials and local labour conditions. Our economy must be a decentralised one supported by agriculture and village industries, supplemented by the necessary large-scale industries which are worked, not for the profit of a few industrialists but for the general welfare.

25. The Place of the Machine-The machine should be treated, as a natural accessory to man's social development. It is the tool, of the free individual and not his master. It must not become the servant of powerful self-seeking individuals and groups. Under proper control and an equitable system of distribution, it can supply the basic needs of food, shelter and clothing to every individual and, release, him from the burden of life for his own proper function of relating himself to his source, to' his fellowmen, and to the forces of his natural environment.

26. Defects of Exclusively Scientific and Technical Education.- Now that scientific, discoveries and technological applications have altered our physical environment profoundly in the space of a few generations, our social habits and institutions require to be readjusted. We have grown strong in the mastery of the physical world but are very weak in our ability to manage and direct the social forces that shape our lives. It is a false belief that scientific pre-eminence is the only basis- of national security and welfare.