CREATIVITY THROUGH INVESTIGATORY APPROACH AND PROJECTS
5.1 WAY TO CREATIVITY : INVESTIGATORY APPROACH To see, to wonder, to learn : this sequence expresses a child's quest for knowledge. Children and Science belong together, for what is more natural for boys and girls than to explore the common place in the natural environment? In their short span of living, children have had a multitude of experiences, and their natural tendency is to touch, see, and ask about things near them. They have observed how plants and animals grow. They have felt the wind, rain and snowfall upon them, seen lightening, and heard thunder. They have observed televised scenes of man's ascend beyond the earth, where human beings have lived for more than a million years. Some boys and girls will know about an ocean, a seashore, a vast open plain, or a high mountain. Those from farms will have learned about plant and animal life, water, soil, and the Weather. Still other children will have gained only limited knowledge while growing up because of circumscribed home environments. But regardless of where children live, they have had experiences of some kind, and such experiences constitute science that has been lived.
Because children are curious, they search to understand the unknown. Interest in learning is already developed, and science therefore occupies a unique position as a facet of education. Teachers can identify pupil's early concern for answers to WHAT and HOW when children tell about their experiences and bring materials that aid them in learning science. 'Learners explore types of problems encountered in many areas of science.
To make use of children's curiosity and tendency to explore, teachers should make their classrooms discovery - oriented, designed to encourage young minds to investigate with the freedom to process information, even though it means that there are possibilities of error, miscalculation and mistake. An important goal for children is the ability to discover meanings that lead to concepts. Concepts arise from pupil's involvement and interaction with objects through experimentation. Learning is clearly a process centered in children's quest for knowledge.
Learning through investigation enables pupils to gain maximum mileage from the exercises they perform. Pupils who have the opportunity to function in this way learn faster than those who lack such flexibility. Furthermore such methods save time because the need for relearning at subsequent age levels is minimized. Children must continue to learn until a concept becomes a "free idea" that can be readily transfered to new situations or used to explain new and different observations. "Free ideas", ideas that can be readily associated with other ideas, help motivated pupils to ask more questions and thus translate experience into knowledge.
To understand thinking is to understand how learners acquire knowledge. Psychologists who have studied the way in which pupils learn explain that the thinking processes are those which enable people to construct concepts, such as comparing, classifying, explaining, evaluating, creating, applying, discriminating, analysing and verifying. Teaching Pupils to employ learning processes encourages them to become fluent in making good predictions and to have confidence in their ability to take intuitive "leaps".
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Teachers hear about "discovery methods" and wonder if pupils really learn on their own; or they wonder "What happens if they don't cover all the topics in the course of study". Psychologists dealing with concept attainment seem to agree that teachers should be informed about the function of concepts for two important reasons : First, conceptual schemes are the structural framework for behaviour. Educators also agree that instructors of children should employ the same methods they expect the children to use. If thinking to attain knowledge is a way of life to modify a child's behaviour, then approaches that will encourage thinking should permeate many classroom activities.
Children can develop many schemes for learning. Descriptions of learning activities taken from diaries and bags maintained by both teachers and pupils are reported below. These reports show that children are quite able to use novel ideas, state questions and test the answers. In other words, they show that children are capable of creativity. Original thinking, as encouraged by studying the process of science, is creativity. As children become adapt at seeing possibilities for investigations, numerous designs for learning evolve. They learn that they can make Lip experiments using many common place, available materials.
Some children endowed with creative talent prefer to launch into new and different problems not those frequently voiced by their peers. During one planning period, a pupil started a question that was of particular interest to him and at the same time related to recent scientific research : "Do fish communicate with each other? I have two fish at home. May be I can find out if I watch them." The observations proved to be inconclusive, but since the question continued to intrigue him, the teacher inquired, "What can you do to find out if animals do respond to each other? Since it is difficult for you to learn about the fish, can you go to another source for some information?". "Should I ask someone, a scientist?", was his quick response.
'To help children answer their questions, a teacher provides ample reading material, not only books, but magazines, clippings and pictures as well. In this situation, the teacher said, "I have some information here that tells about animals that live in the ocean and they 'talk' with each other,. Can you ask any scientist too who knows about animals?". Because of sustained interest and reading, this boy became a "specialist" on animal communication for this group.
People usually associate science with measurement and mathematics, seldom with creativity, imagination or originality. But scientific laws and principles all evolved, initially from the creative process. To produce new ideas, the scientist has to think, read, predict and test his theories. When a child thinks creatively he performs similar activities.
Creative learning flourishes when class room exercises are open-ended. Open-ended exercises are those that require pupils to manipulate materials to reveal problems, develop ideas, and find ways to explore them. When open-ended exercises are used, there is a good chance that the child will recall his experiences and use ingenuity. Teachers should give priority to pupil's designed problems : investigations, analysis and synthesis which lead to convergent and deductive thinking and to concept formation. Psychological devices used to launch thinking are important, since they can focus the learner's attention and mobilise his energy. Discrepancies, unusual objects, variations from the expected all serve to sensitise him to problems. Children who are receptive and ready to learn can then advance along many divergent routes of learning.
Teachers who maintain an inventive atmosphere in the classroom create a climate of success. They make it possible for learners to engender their own knowledge, and thus to become their own authority. When pupils work creatively, no laboratory investigation is a failure, since even an inconclusive outcome suggests the next step to take. Moreover, if a child has designed an investigation himself and measured data, the developed concept is correct until more information is available.
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Reports of classroom activities devised by many teachers show how learning may progress so that children have optimum conditions in which to think creatively. There are concrete examples of activities that have brought forth creative, original work from children.
5.2 INVESTIGATORY SCIENCE PROJECTS What is the nature of scientific study? What is the nature of science? What are the steps by which science advances? These are some of the questions for which we cannot find answers through words because words are not enough to convey the excitement and interest of scientific discovery. We can know the nature of science by performing the activities or the problems which interest us. We should investigate critically the problem through scientific method which means that we should perform experiments, observe critically, use all other skills, collect facts as we observe, find regularities in the observations, wonder why the regularities exist, use logical thinking and reasoning the communicate the findings to others. The purpose of carrying out a project or an experiment with results not known is to help the student to develop an independent scientific ability, select, design, conduct a new experiment and interpret the results.
Steps in an Investigation : The activities of science begin with the selection of the problem and its scientific investigation in the following order :
1. Selection of the problem.
2. Careful observations and collection of relevant information.
3. Classification of facts and making a hypothesis.
4. Testing the hypothesis.
5. Verification of the hypothesis by interpreting the results
(a) to accept the hypothesis
(b) to reject the hypothesis
(c) to modify the hypothesis.
6. To find reasons for the regularities that exist i.e., to think and reason logically to explain the hypothesis, theory or law.
7. To communicate the findings to others i.e.. writing the project report.
Selection of the Problem : The student should reach for the problem himself and select a problem which interests him the most. He should see to it that all the apparatus, chemicals, etc. required are available.
Collection of Relevant Information : The student should refer to select books, reviews, periodicals, encyclopedias and year books to get as much information as possible. He should not hesitate to talk about it to others.
Conduct of Investigation : (i) The student should prepare a detailed work-schedule and procure all the apparatus and chemicals before actually starting the investigation.
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(ii) Check the precision of the apparatus for accurate measurements.
(iii) Observation : One can observe and report many things only when one has concentration, alertness, patience and knows about the conditions which need to be controlled and varied. (iv) Objectivity : One should have an open mind while observing and not hope for the expected results. One should report what one actually observes.
Interpretation of Data : It is one of the most important steps in scientific investigation. It requires a sound theoretical background, imaginative thinking and logical reasoning because this is the stage where one is going to frame a hypothesis or make a theory or law.
Communicate the Findings to others : The student should make a report under the following heads :-
1. Preliminary : (i) Title Page.
(ii) Approval Sheet.
(iii) Acknowledgement Page : The student should thank and appreciate the teacher and all others who helped in the completion of the project.
(iv) List of equipment, apparatus and chemicals and sources of their procurement.
(v) List of tables, graphs and figures.
2. Introduction : (i) History.
(ii) Statement of Problem.
(iii) Theoretical Background.
(iv) Definition of terms.
3. Experimental : (i) Apparatus and Experimental Technique.
(ii) Details of the Experiment.
(iii) Tabulation of Results.
(iv) Sources of Data.
4. Generalization : Generalization of the data to seek regularities, framing of hypothesis, theory, law and conclusions.
5. Bibliography : The student should give list of books, periodicals, reviews and journals consulted in the execution of the project.
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5.3 SOME SUGGESTIVE PROJECTS
Projects in Biology
I Plant Physiology : Photosynthesis and Transpiration provide good topics.
Examples :
1. What is the relationship between the rate of photosynthesis and light intensity in a particular plant species?
2. To what extent does the rate of photosynthesis depend on temperature?
3. What factors affect transpiration rate?
4. Does transpiration rate vary between plants of the same species or plants from the same habitat?
5. What makes the colour of leaves?
6. What affects a the chance of germination of a seed ?
7. Does soaking accelerate germination?
II Growth : Factors affecting growth of particular plant or animal can be studied
Examples
1. Effects of different minerals on plant growth.
2. Effects of light on plant growth.
3. Effect of hormones on plant or animal growth.
III Plant Anatomy : 1. How does the structure of leaves from plants of the same species but from different habitats compare?
2. Relationship between leaf structure and transpiration rates.
3. Can trees be recognised after their leaves have fallen?
IV Animal Physiology : 1 How is either the gaseous exchange rate or oxygen debt related to the performance of one subject?
2. Fluid intake and output.
3. How does pulse rate vary with different age, activities, training, etc?
4. What clothing keeps us warmest?
V Biochemical : 1. The effect of detergents as the permeability of cell membranes.
2. Do animals and plants share the same enzymes?
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Projects In Chemistry 1 How does soyabean milk compare with natural milk with respect of curd formation and effect of temperature?
2. How does potassium bisulphate act as a food preservative under various conditions such as temperature, concentration and time.
3. To investigate the digestion of starch by saliva.
4. To investigate the effect of temperature and pH an the hydrolysis of starch by saliva.
5. To compare the rate of fermentation of the following substances : (a) Wheat flour (b) Gram flour (c) Potato juice.
6. To investigate the rates of fermentation of : (a) Orange juice (b) Apple juice (c) Carrot juice.
7. To investigate the presence of adultrants in food items such as : (a) Fat, oil and butter (b) Sugar (c) Spices (turmeric powder, pepper, chilly powder).
8. To investigate the casene content in different samples of milk.
9. To investigate the dialysis of different sewage water samples and identify the different ions present in resulting solutions.
10. To investigate the presence of insecticide/pesticide in vegetables and fruits.
Projects in Physics 1. To investigate how the conductivity of an electrolyte be made maximum.
2. To investigate the role of electrodes in achieving maximum conductivity of an electrolyte.
3. To investigate how to obtain maximum illumination in a room with a given electric bulb.
4. To investigate how a wave can be made shorter or longer in a stretched string.
5. To investigate how the range of an object under projectile motion can be made maximum.
6. To investigate Which material is best suited to make a room sound proof.
7. To investigate trend in change of energy in an oscillating pendulum at different positions.
8. To investigate how the density of liquids affect their refracting power.
9. To investigate how the efficiency of a battery eliminator can be increased.
10. To investigate how light efficiency of an electric bulb is affected by the power consumed.
5.4 A SAMPLE OF INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
Project :
Investigation :
Introduction : 26
strong oxidizing agent, an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate. Their ability to add or substitute bromine when treated with a solution of bromine in carbon tetrachloride was also compared :
To investigate the reactions of alcohols, methanol, CH30H, ethanol, C2H5OH and three isomeric alcohols with the formula C4H9OH were chosen. The names and more detailed formulas of the latter three alcohols were obtained from the reference book of chemistry : 1-butanol, CH3CH2CH2CH20H a primary alcohol, 2-butanol, CH3CH2CHOHCH3 a secondary alcohol, 2-methyl 1-2-propanol CH3COH(CH3)CH3 a tertiary alcohol.
Equipment Needed :
13 x 100 mm test tubes 9
Test tube rack 1
Cork stoppors for test tubes 9
Beaker for water bath 250 ml 1
Wax pencil or labels 1
Burner 1
Ring stand 1
Ring 1
Wire gauze 1
Chemicals Needed :
Cyclohexane 1 ml
Cyclohexene 1 ml
Benzene 1 ml
Toluene 1 ml
Methanol 2 ml
Ethanol 1 ml
1 -butanol 4 ml
2-butanol 4 ml
2-methyl - 2-propanol 4 ml
Sodium metal 0.02 g
Conc. HCl (12 M) 15 ml
0.01 M KMnO4 solution (1.6g/1) 14 ml
0.1 M bromine in carbon tetrachloride 5 ml
(5 ml Br2/995 ml CC14)
6 M H2SO4 (340 ml conc. reagent/litre) 2 ml
6 M NaoH (24 g/100 ml) 4 ml
Copper wire 20 cm
Procedure : 27
Part-I : Reactions of Hydrocarbons : 1. Labelled a clean, qry 13 x 100 mm test tube for each of the hydrocarbons to be tested : cyclohexane, cyclohexene, benzene and toluene. I added about 1.0 drops of the appropriate hydrocarbon to each test tube. I prepared 4 ml of a 0.005 M alkaline potassium per manganate solution by adding 2 ml of 0.01 KMn 04 solution to 2 ml of 6 M NaOH. I added I ml of this solution to each of the test tubes containing the different hydrocarbons. I placed a cork in each test tube and shook the contents gently to obtain an intimate contact between the two phases. I noted any changes in the colour of the aqueous layer after about one minute. I shook the contents occasionally and observed the tubes after five minutes.
2. I placed about 1 0 drops of each hydrocarbon in four labelled small test tubes. I added 1 ml of 0.1 M Br2 in Carbon tetrachloride, drop by drop, to each of the test tubes. I placed a stopper in each test tube and shook the contents occasionally as I added the bromine solution and noted any changes in colour. I continued the addition of the bromine to those hydrocarbons where a change was noted until the bromine colour-persisted.
Observations :
1. The results of mixing alkaline KMnO4 solution with the given hydrocarbons :-
Observations for Cyclohexane Cyclohexene Benzene Toluene
1. On adding and mixing Purple Green Purple Purple
KMnO4 Soln. (No change) (No change) (No change)
2. After 5 minutes Grey-purple Brown ppt. Grey-purple Grey
2. The results of mixing bromine with the given hydrocarbons :-
Observations for Cyclohexane Cyclohexene Benzene Toluene
On mixing Bromine No change Becomes No change Some slight
after agitating colourless loss of colour
Interpretation of observations :-
I. Bell and Stick models reveal. 1. All hydrocarbons but cyclehexane under investigation contain double bonds.
2. Benzene and toluene are planer.
3. Cyclohexane may be either chair or boat form.
II. Cyclehexene was most readily oxidized and it was also found most reactive with bromine. This was the only one expected to react as it contained a double bond. The benzene ring compounds do react with bromine, not as addition of bromine, but as a substitution for a hydrogen atom. This however, does not take place under ordinary conditions unless a catalyst is present. There is no reason why reaction would be more likely with toluene than with benzene. Hence if a reaction is observed, it probably reflects the lack of purity in the toluene used.
Inference : 28
1 A hydrocarbon having a double bond between two carbon atoms is more active than a hydrocarbon having single bond between carbon atoms.
2. An isolated double bond (as in cyclohexene) is not the same as an aromatic ring (as in benzene and toluene).
Part-II : Some Reactions of Alcohols :
I Reaction of ethanol. I placed about 2 ml of 0.01 M KMnO4 in each of the three test tubes. I added 2 ml of distilled water to one. 2 ml of 6 M H2SO4 to the second, and 2 ml of distilled water to the third. Labelled them neutral. acidic and basic solutions. I then added 2 drops of C2H50H to each, shook the contents, and noted any change in the colour of the permanganate solutions. I added another drop or two of ethanol and observed any further change which took place after five minutes. I noted differences in the rate of oxidation as well as in the reaction products.
Ethanol with Basic KMnO4 Neutral Acidic KMnO4
KMnO4
1. After 10 seconds Green No change Red rather than
purple
2. After 5 minutes Yellow-brown No change Very light red
or pink.