POLICY FRAMEWORK
 

India's commitment to the spread of knowledge and freedom of thought among its citizens is reflected in its Constitution. The Directive Principle contained in Article 45 enjoins that "the State shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for-free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years'. Article 29 (1) provides that any citizen having a distinct language, script or culture will have the right to conserve it. Moreover, special care of the economic and educational interests of the underprivileged sections, particularly, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is laid down as an obligation of the State under Article 46.

In fulfilling these objectives, the role of the teacher must naturally be seminal, Apart from funding and building institutional structures, the diversity and complexity of India requires teachers of special vision and sensitivity, if the goals enunciated in the Constitution, specially pertaining to the underprivileged and the minorities are to be fulfilled. In this context, teacher training and the calibre of teachers are of prime importance.

National Policy on Education

Educational policy and progress have been reviewed in the light of the goals of national development and priorities set from time to time. In its Resolution on the National Policy on Education in 1968, an emphasis on quality improvement and a planned, more equitable expansion of educational facilities and the need to focus on the education of girls was stressed. It was also stated that of all the factors which determine the quality of education and its contribution to national development, the teacher was undoubtedly the most important. It was on the qualities and character, educational qualifications and professional competence of the teacher that success of all educational endeavours must, ultimately, depend.

About a decade and a half later, the National Policy on Education (NPE-1986) was formulated which was further updated in 1992. The NPE- 1986 provides for a comprehensive policy framework for the development of education upto the end of the century and a Plan of Action (POA) 1992, assigning specific responsibilities for organising, implementing and financing its proposals. Among the distinguishing features and recommendations of this policy are:

* emphasis on pre-primary education,

* formulation of strategies based on micro-planning at the grassroots level to en-sure children's retention in school,

* recommendation to lay down Minimum Levels of Learning (MLLs) for each stage of education,

Policy Framework 1

* integration of adult literacy and Non Formal Education (NFE) programmes with vital national concerns such as the small family norm, health care, environment and nutrition,

* provision of essential facilities in schools,

* adoption of a child-centred, activity-based approach, and

* establishment of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) for the pre-service and in-service education of teachers for elementary schools and for personnel working in non-formal and adult education programmes.

In the NPE 1986, improvement in the status and professional competence of teachers is envisaged as the cornerstone of educational reconstruction. It emphasises that teacher education is a continuous process which new programmes of teacher education must reflect.

To ensure greater participation in education by all sections of society and also to improve quality, decentralised management structures are being introduced in states. This is in pursuance of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments of 1992 regarding Panchayati Raj and Nagar Palika institutions.

Education for All : International policy and programme initiatives

The World Conference on Education For All (EFA) held at Jomtien, Thailand in 1990 affirmed the will of participating nations including India to meet the basic learning needs of all children, youth and adults. To achieve this objective a two-pronged strategy was designed, i.e., Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) and universal adult literacy, which has since been the priority policy and action areas for the participating nine highly populated countries.

Three years later in December 1993, India's commitment to EFA (Education for All) was reaffirmed in its adoption of the Delhi Declaration and Framework of Action at the EFA Summit. The Declaration calls for ensuring a place for every child in a school or an appropriate

2 Development of Education in India 1995-96

education programme according to his or her capabilities, consolidating efforts towards basic education for children, youth and adults from public and private sources, improving and extending literacy and Adult Education (AE) programmes within the context of an integrated strategy of basic education for all people, eliminating disparities of access to basic education, improving the quality and relevance of basic education, and in all actions and according to the highest priority at national and other levels, ensuring that a growing share of national and community resources is dedicated to basic education, improving the management of existing resources for education, and collaborating with other nations in the development of distance education.

At a Special Conference convened in February, 1994 following the summit, the Chief Ministers of all the States and Union Territories (UTs) decided that coordinated and concerted action would be needed on the part of the local community, state governments and the central government in the mobilisation of resources for education so that there was a substantial increase in budget allocation and so as to accord higher priority to primary and AE.

The process of affirmation of the goals of EFA was reinforced at the Mid Decade Review of EFA which took place in Amman, Jordan in June 1996, at which various initiatives were discussed in a country- specific context to review achievements of EFA.

Elementary education

Making education accessible

Ensuring accessibility of educational opportunities has been the principal policy plank of governmental strategy. While special efforts were aimed at educationally disadvantaged groups, particularly, Scheduled Castes (SCs) (comprising roughly 17 per cent of the population) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) (constituting about 8 per cent of the populations), various measures including monetary and other incentives, and recruitment of more teachers from disadvantaged communities, and flexible school timings provided the fillip to the expanding coverage of enrolment. As an incentive to enrolment, attendance and retention, besides improving the nutrition of children, a nationwide mid-day meal programme has been launched during 1995-96. More than 33.5 million children benefitted from the scheme. By 1997- 98 all government run/aided schools in the country would be covered.

The Indian education system is also unique in that it seeks to give due recognition and importance to the social organisation, traditions, customs and value systems of the various communities-particularly SCs and STs. This is supported by the development of materials and curricula in tribal languages, residential schools for tribal children and the encouragement of the young, educated members of the community to participate in the educational process.

Various initiatives have been taken to reduce the academic burden on students while improving the quality of education. Not only is curriculum development being decentralist but an increasing involvement of teachers in the development of textbooks, child-centred and activity-based method of teaching in schools and examination strategies are being formulated to assess the ability to understand rather than the ability to memorise. The system of examination, too, is continuously under review through introduction of continuous and comprehensive evaluation.

The Government, in 1996, has renewed its

Policy Framework 3

commitment and resolve to UEE and to spend atleast 50 per cent of the allocation on education which is to grow to 6 per cent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by the turn of the century as against the current level of about 3.23 per cent of GDP. Opening of residential schools for the poor children in each district and Teacher Housing Scheme are the thrust areas of the new policy.

New initiative: District Primary Education Programme

The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) is the major initiative undertaken to effect improvement in the quality and UEE. The programme is distinguished by its holistic approach and the principle of contextuality in planning. This, in effect, implies that education is planned and organised in the specific context of the area concerned a shift from macro to micro planning with the district as the unit of planning. The programme lays great emphasis on people's participation and management, has a marked gender focus and seeks to enhance school effectiveness by increasing infrastructural facilities, developing instructional materials and training of teachers.

Non Formal Education

The NPE 1986, while taking the enormous challenge of achieving UEE in its entirety (access retention as well as achievement), recognised the fact that schools would not reach all children, particularly, millions of girls and working children whose participation in the school system is thwarted by socio-economic conditions. The Policy, therefore, called for a large and systematic programme of NFE as an integral component to achieve UEE with enough flexibility for learners to learn at their own pace and at the same time having quality comparable with formal education.

Secondary education

In keeping with the role of secondary education in preparing students for further academic or professional studies, the policy has been focussed on improvement of quality through specific inputs such as the schemes for improvement of Science Education, Environment Education, Population Education and Computer Literacy. Government run schools, Kendriya Vidyalayas (Central Schools) have added to promotion of national identity throughout the country. The Government has accelerated the process of creating infrastructure and teacher training facilities so that these chains of schools act as pace setters for other schools in the country. Residential co-educational secondary schools [Navodaya Vidyalayas] have been established in each district to nourish talent in the rural areas. These schools have a positive bias in favour of girls and currently, about 1,20,000 students are enrolled on the basis of merit, in these schools.

Open school

A major initiative to expand access of education was to promote distance education. To this end, the Open School system also provides alternative schooling to neo-literates who have acquired functional literacy and also to dropouts from the school and the NFE systems so that their schooling continues of their own pace and at a time convenient to them. The National Open School (NOS) and the State Open Schools provide alternative means to acquire secondary level education in a flexible manner.

Vocational education

Vocational education is the policy framework that seeks to provide diversification of educational options, increase potential employability and reduce the mismatch between demand and supply of skilled manpower. At present,

4 Development of Education in India 1995-96

about 10 per cent students take up vocational courses in the last two years of the schooling phase. The endeavour is that 25 per cent students be diverted to the vocational stream the end of the present century. A Central Institute of Vocational Education (CIVE) under The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has been set up to support courses and develop instructional material. The Institute has accomplished this in about 150 vocations. It is also proposed to set up State Institutes of Vocational Education and strengthen existing ones. Pre-vocational education is being introduced at the lower secondary stage (classes IX and X). The scheme aims at covering 1,000 schools during the Eighth Plan (1992- 97).

Non-formal vocational education and training programmes are also being introduced through Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), specially, in rural areas. These are intended for girls in the 14-18 age group and are designed to emphasise entrepreneurship and introduce new and emerging technologies to women.

Higher education

Higher education policy in India has been characterised by upgradation strategies that provide for quality improvement, and consolidation of facilities for existing Universities and Colleges. The higher education sector, considered vital for the national economy, has witnessed a steady growth since Independence in 1947. The enrolment of students too shows an increased share of women and SCs and STs in all stages of higher education. The utilisation of distance education as a cost-effective and easily accessible medium for upgradation of education and skills, particularly in remote areas, forms part of the thrust area in the higher education policy.

Technical education

Technical education is one of the most significant component of the human resource development spectrum with great potential for adding value to products and services, for contributing to the national economy, and for improving the quality of life of the people. In recognition of the importance of this sector, the successive five year plans laid great emphasis on the development of technical education. Technical education includes courses in engineering, technology management, pharmacy, applied arts and crafts, etc. Policy guidelines in technical education have sought to streamline courses and syllabi in 'relation to the manpower needs of the country as well as changing technological scenario across the globe.

Initiatives in technical education

Policy initiatives to revamp the technical education system include promoting institution-industry interaction, providing continuing education to update the skill and knowledge of technical personnel working in the industry and service sectors, the transfer of technology to the rural sector and setting up Technology Development Missions to meet the emerging challenges in science and technology.

In order to update and upgrade technical education in the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs) and other institutions/polytechnics, obsolete machinery and equipment is weeded out, modern machinery and new equipment relevant to curricular needs introduced and opportunities for hands-on experience for students created.

A new policy measure has also been initiated to mobilise funds, particularly, for higher and technical education from non-governmental

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sources. In tune with the economic liberalisation of the economy, institutions are being encouraged to generate resources, raise fees which often have not been revised in the last three or four decades and embark on judicious financial management with the overall objective of reducing government subsidies.

A National Technical Manpower Information System has been developed by the Government to monitor the absorption of trained engineering and technical manpower and thereby, create a data base in order to streamline and plan the development of technical education.

During the past few years, the number of institutions in the private sector has increased considerably. A number of industrial houses have also established technical and management institutions. The government, however, has taken suitable measures to regulate education in the private sector to check its commercialisation and maintain standards through setting up All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE).

Adult education

AE, an essential component of EFA is seen as an imperative for the growth of the individual and the nation. The National Literacy Mission (NLM), set up in 1988 with the goal of helping 80 million persons achieve literacy by 1995, has adopted the Total Literacy Cam- paign (TLC) as the dominant strategy for achieving its literacy goals. This has resulted in a rich and varied experience that has become an international resource. The Mission has now been extended to cover 100 million non-literates by 1997, that is by the end of the 8th Plan period.

Value-based education

The NPE 1986 recognises that importance should be given to value-based curriculum incorporating the notion of an equitable society, secularism, democracy, and a scientific temper. These are reflected in the core elements of the school curriculum and also include observance of the small family norm, protection of the environment and gender equality. Human rights have also been now included. Both at the national and state levels, textbooks have been reviewed to eliminate passages that were inimical to human rights or that distorted them. Steps have, simultaneously, been initiated to include alternative material which shows sensitivity to human rights issues. Universities are also in the process of introducing courses on human rights. The NCERT has published a Source Book on Human Rights as a guide for teachers.

Conclusion

Educational Policy in India centres around the interests of the disadvantaged, with a thrust on quantitative expansion as well as quality improvement an effort in which the teacher is seen as a key player and partner. This report attempts to unfold this through presenting the structure, administration and financing of education in India, followed by a chapter on the means of instruction and infrastructure. This then leads on to the two main chapters on the situation of the teaching staff and on recruitment and training of teachers. Innovative teacher training practices are then presented as a conclusive chapter to the report.