STRUCTURE, ORGANISATION AND PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
The focus of the present chapter is two fold. First, it lays down the broad dimensions and magnitude of the structure, organisation and progress in primary, secondary and tertiary sectors in education. Secondly, it also highlights growth and priority areas in education in India that point to the challenges for the future.
Early childhood education The importance of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) has been recognised as a crucial preparatory aspect of a child's development. In India, this programme has evolved to provide a holistic service, Besides, educational facilities for learning through structured and unstructured play activities, health care and nutrition are also catered for. Day Care Centres are provided as a support service to enable girls taking care of siblings to attend school. These Day Care Centres also assist working women belonging to the poorer sections.
Structure Organisation and Progress of Education in India 7
Supplementing education at this level, the National TV Network has transmitted a serial which introduces pre-school children to reading, numbers, geometric shapes, health care concepts, sanitation and food using songs, animation and puppets. The number of pre-primary schools has increased from 303 in 1951 to nearly 14 million in 1991-92 while the enrolment in these has gone up from 28,000 to 3.9 million for the corresponding years.
Elementary educationThe elementary education system in India is the second largest in the world with 149.4 million children of 6-14 years enrolled. This is about 82 per cent of the children in this age-group. The emphasis, however, is not on enrolment alone, equal attention is paid to retention and achievement. An estimated 95 per cent of the rural population now has access to primary schooling facilities within a walking distance of
8 Development of Education in India 1995-96
1km; 84 per cent of the population is served by middle or upper primary schools within a distance of 3 kms. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for classes I-V is 104.0 and for classes VI-VIII it is 67.2 for the year 1994-95, There has been a substantial increase in girls' enrolment: from 40.4 million in 1990-91 to 46.8 million in 1994-95 in primary schools and 52.9 million in 1990-91 to 62.6 million in 1994-95 in upper primary schools.
Facilities for expanding enrolment The expanding enrolment has necessitated a growing number of teachers as well as schools in the country: from 5.6 million primary schools in 1990-91 to 5.8 million in 1994-95 and from 16.6 million in 1990-91 to 17.14 million teachers at the primary level in 1994-95.
There are four types of schools in the country government managed, government aided, government recognised but unaided, and unrecognised.
A common structure of education is being followed in most states: i.e., the 10, + 2, + 3 system. Thus a child who joins class I at the age of six goes through five years of primary school, and three years of upper primary/ middle school to complete eight years of elementary education. Two years of secondary education and two years of higher secondary education bring schooling to an end. Three years of further studies enable the student to obtain his/her first degree.
Structure, Organisation and Progress of Education in India 9
DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS BY TYPE OF SCHOOL SINCE 1991
Primary Upper Primary High/Hr.Secondary
Year Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
1990-91 1143 473 1616 717 356 1073 917 417 1334
1991-92 1144 492 1636 714 365 1079 931 450 1381
1992-93* 1189 493 1682 736 346 1082 908 445 1353
1993-94* 1196 507 1703 710 370 1080 938 467 1405
1994-95* 1181 533 1714 732 390 1122 956 490 1446
Source: NCERT, VI All India Educational Survey, 1993
Curriculum development for elementary schools The states are free to develop their own curricula and instructional materials within the framework developed at the national level by the NCERT. To cope with this, a strategy has been evolved to import MLLs, i.e., the development of competency based teaching and learning to suit local situations. This approach integrates various components of curriculum, classroom transaction, evaluation and teacher orientation. It is expected to achieve greater relevance and functionality in primary education.
Non Formal EducationDespite enormous strides in school education, 28 million out of 153 million in the age-group 5-14 are still out of school. Of these, 14 million are working children who cannot attend school full time. Hence, NFE is seen as a vital aspect of India's current strategy on education as it can reach out to working children, school drop-outs, girls and those who cannot attend full-time schools due to several socioeconomic factors.
Under the NFE programme there are three types of centres:
* Co-educational centres where the contribution of the union government and state government is 50:50;
* Girls' centres with the contribution of union and state governments being 90: 10; and
* NFE centres run by NGOs. In these the assistance from the union government is 100 per cent.
DROP-OUT RATES
Primary Upper Primary
Year Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
1990-91 42.0 47.6 44.3 60.6 67.6 63.4
1991-92 41.0 45.2 42.8 54.3 62.0 57.5
1992-93 40.0 43.0 41.3 53.9 60.0 56.4
1993-94 35.0 38.5 36.5 49.9 56.7 52.8
Source: Government of India, Department of Education, MDR Report on
Education for All 1990-95
Besides these, a number of innovative experimental projects taken up, by various organisations (particularly NGOs) get 100 per cent funding from the Ministry of Human Resource Development. By March 1993, the number of NFE centres functioning in the country was 279,000.
The life of a centre is generally, two years. These centres are organised for two hours a day at a time convenient to the learners. Each centre is run by an instructor who takes care of the various groups of learners learning at various grade levels. Children learn each unit at their own pace. This is also true of NFE centres at the upper primary level.
The NFE course is condensed into four semesters of six months each for which specially developed teaching-learning materials and stationery are provided to children free of cost. Compatibility with the formal school system is ensured through a focus on MLLs. There is a provision for testing and certification of children of NFE centres to facilitate their entry into formal schools.
Implemented through state governments and voluntary organisations, the NFE programme draws on a high level of community participation and is characterised by flexibility, relevance and a decentralised administrative structure.
Secondary educationThere has been a steady expansion of secondary education in India. Between 1986 and 1993, the enrolment growth for secondary and higher secondary was 32.45 and 37.72 per cent, respectively. Girls' enrolment, too, increased greatly, registering an increase of 50.99 at the secondary level and 53.97 at
GROWTH IN SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA
1986 1993 % increase
Secondary Schools
i. Rural 38,862 48,262 24.19
ii. Urban 13,689 17,877 30.51
iii. Total 52,560 66,139 25.84
Higher Secondary Schools
i. Rural 7,136 11,642 63.14
ii. Urban 8,329 11,882 42.66
iii. Total 15,465 23,524 52.11
Source: NCERT, VI All India Educational Survey, 1993
the higher secondary level. In addition to expansion, secondary education is being strengthened through various schemes such as, those for improving education in science, vocational areas and work experi- ence, population education, culture, values, computer literacy, education technology, yoga, physical education and sports. A number of programmes have also been formulated for promoting enrolment of girls, SCs/STs and disabled children.
Higher educationThe higher education system has grown steadily since Independence. From 25 universities in 1947 the number increased by 1994-95 to 216 which includes 13 central universities, 164 state universities and 36 institutions deemed universities, while the number of colleges went up from 700 to 8,61 3. Enrolment figures for the some years show an increase from 0.2 million to 6.1 million students for higher education. In 1994-95, 2.06 million female students were enrolled in higher education programmes with their participation at the post- graduate level accounting for 35.6 per cent of the total enrolment.
Out of 8613 colleges, 974 provide education in professional disciplines like engineering
(352), agriculture (170) and medicine (638) including ayurvedic, homoeopathic, pharmacy, etc. Others provide education in arts, physical sciences, humanities, social sciences, etc.
The University Grants Commission (UGC) has focussed on restructuring undergraduate courses to make them more relevant and to provide a work experience/productivity component for them. The UGC proposes to make environment education part of the foundation course at the undergraduate level. Efforts are also being made to develop a curriculum for women's studies at the undergraduate and post-graduate levels. Financial support is offered to universities seeking to conduct research in women's studies,
Technical education There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of institutions in the sector of technical education during the last four decades. The number of recognised technical education institutions at the First Degree Level upto 1947-48 was 38, whereas, the number of approved Degree Level Institutions by 1995-96 has gone upto 414 and the number for Polytechnics has gone upto 1,026. Similar expansions have taken place in other sectors of technical education in technical institutions.
Important technical education institutions
Indian Institutes of TechnologyAt present, six IITs have been set up at Bombay, Delhi, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras and Guwahati by the Government of India under an Act of Parliament called the Institutes of Technology Act, 1961 as the Institutions of National Importance with the objectives of the advancement of knowledge through quality education and research in both pure and applied sciences and in Engineering/Technology. These institutes offer Engineering Education at Graduate and Post Graduate levels and also provide adequate facilities for advanced research.
12 Development of Education in India 1995-96
Indian Institutes of Management The four Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) were set up by the Government of India at Ahmedabad, Calcutta, Bangalore and Lucknow registered under the Societies Registration Act with the objectives of providing education, training, research and consultancy in management. These institutes are premier centres in these areas. The IIMs offer postgraduate Programmes, Fellowship Programmes, Management Development Programmes, Postgraduate Diploma in Computer Aided Management and Organisation-based programmes. The Government of India has recently approved the establishment of two more IIMs, one at Indore (Madhya Pradesh) and the other at Calicut (Kerala).
Indian Institute of Science: Bangalore The Indian Institute of Science (IISc.), Bangalore having Deemed University status since 1958, is one of the premier institutes of the country. The institute has earned recognition as a formidable centre of research in basic and engineering sciences and allied fields and is an institute of international repute. The institute offers postgraduate programmes and research facilities.
Regional Engineering Colleges Seventeen RECs in the country were established as joint and cooperative ventures of the Government of India and the concerned State Governments. Most of these were established during the year 1959-60. The national character is ensured by each college by admitting students from all States and UTs and further by appointing the best available faculty on an all India basis. The RECs function as pace setters and provide academic leader-ship to other technical institutions in the respective regions. These colleges are autonomous registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, Academically, the colleges are affiliated to the respective universities in the region where the RECs are located. The Government of India meets the entire non-recurring expenditure. Fifty per cent of the recurring expenditure on undergraduate programmes is borne by the respective State Governments. The Government of India also meets the entire expenditure on postgraduate programmes. The admissions are made on the basis of entrance examinations conducted by the technical education departments of the States. Fifty per cent of the seats are filled by the students qualifying from the States and the remaining 50 per cent are filled by the students coming from the other States/ UTs based on pre-decided distribution done by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD). The total sanctioned strength of the students in all the RECs is 6,703. To empower RECs for achieving excellence in education, R&D and developing curricula in tune with present day needs and forging closer links with industry, the MHRD has mounted schemes like UK- India REC Project and making RECs as Centres of Excellence by providing special funds,
Other institutes Apart from the above centres of excellence, the Government of India has set up other institutions in the specialised fields like Indian Engineering (NIIE), Bombay, National Institute of Foundry & Forge Technology (NIFFT), Ranchi, School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi, etc.
Adult educationThe 1991 census showed that the current rate of literacy is 52.21 per cent for the entire country: 39.29 per cent for females and 64.13 per cent for males. The census also showed that for the first time, the number of literates exceeded the number of illiterates in
India, that female literacy increased at a faster pace (10 per cent) than male literacy (8 per cent) over the period 1981-91. Overall, the literacy rate recorded an increase from about 19 per cent of the population aged 5 and above in 1951 to 52 per cent of the population aged 7 and above in 1991. The rate of female literacy also rose noticeably from 9 per cent of the population aged 5 and above in 1954 to 40 per cent aged 7 and above in 1991.
The literacy rate among SCs has increased from 25 per cent in 1981 to 38 per cent in 1991. Correspondingly, the literacy rate among STs has increased from 17 per cent in 1981 to 30 per cent in 1991. In spite of these increases, the levels of literacy among SCs and STs are distinctly lower than that of the population as a whole (52 per cent). Gender disparity is conspicuous among SCs and STs. The ratio of female literates to total number of literates improved from 69 in 1981 to 76 in 1991. The rural-urban differential in male literacy declined from 27 per cent in 1981 to 26 per cent in 1991. However, the rural- urban difference in female literacy increased. Female literacy varies from 8 per cent in Barmer district of Rajasthan to 94 per cent in the Kottayam district of Kerala.