 PROGRAMMES FOR ADOLESCENTS
AND ADULTS

1. Identification and Analysis of Issues

The issue of adult (15 years+) illiteracy, as Figure 7 reveals, looms large in all nine countries. Moreover, unlike the universalization of primary education, which with serious effort and commitment could be substantially achieved within a decade, adult illiteracy is likely to remain an immense problem for decades to come. Indeed, in the projections prepared by UNESCO in 1990 on the basis of trends observed during the 1980s, it was foreseen that the number of illiterates in the nine countries would actually increase by about eight million by the year 2000. This projection, of course, did not take account of the excellent progress made in increasing the coverage of primary education in the early 1990s. Nonetheless, the full impact of recent improvements in reducing the number of adult illiterates will not be felt for some time. If progress continues, it will prevent the number of illiterates from growing, but will not, by itself, reduce it greatly. Indeed, only curative action - literacy work among adults - can reduce the number of illiterates significantly within the next decade. Since little emphasis is given to literacy work among adults over 45 years of age - roughly half of all. illiterates - the problem of adult literacy can be expected to recede very gradually. Increasing longevity will, in fact, slow the rate at which illiteracy declines.

Yet significant progress is, in fact, being made, as Figure 8 reveals. This figure depicts the rapid growth in the number of literates - a total of 710 million in the nine countries - and the decline in the rate of illiteracy by 14 points, from 41 to 27 per cent, projected to occur between 1985 and the year 2000. The explanation of these increases is, of course, the impact of population growth combined with the spread of primary education. In several countries, literacy programmes for adolescents and adults are also making an important contribution. In China, as noted below, during the last 40 years, 180 million adults have been made literate.

To the traditional mission of literacy programmes, that of serving the unschooled, is being added the newer role of completing the work that primary schools have begun. In the nine countries, there are tens of millions of semi-literate and newly-literate young women and men. They include the drop-outs and even many of those who have completed primary education. They are literate in the narrow sense of that term, but their mastery of basic knowledge and essential learning skills is frail. They are ill prepared to compete in the labour market where the skills

that count are not so much basic literacy as the 'functional literacy' standards set by employers.

These semi-literates and newly literates, most of whom are in their teens and twenties, are a target group of growing importance for adult education. They are usually the most motivated group. They have long lives before them. Their aspirations are high, often unrealistically so. They are in the workforce, or seeking to enter it. They are or soon will be parents. For all these reasons, they are prime candidates for further education. Whether these programmes are called literacy or adult education, it is important that they put due stress on the development of fundamental learning skills and basic knowledge: upon completing the learning begun in the primary school. Research demonstrates that this outcome of education is both the most generally applicable and the most easily transferable from one situation to another. Programmes will, however, usually be more appealing to such learners if they also teach vocational skills tailored to employment, including self-employment, within the community or locality. Indeed, as the experience of several countries demonstrates, vocational education programmes offer one of the most motivating contexts in which instruction in literacy and numeracy skills can be offered.

Gender disparity:

is even more marked in statistics on adult literacy than it is in those concerning primary education. Table 8 depicts the situation in the nine countries. In view of this glaring inequality and the extremely important role that women play as family decision-makers, programmes for women should be accorded the highest priority. Because women have had fewer educational opportunities than men, they are often particularly motivated to participate in adult programmes. The content of such programmes differs considerably from country to country. Experience has shown that young women are often as interested in vocational education as are men. Courses teaching carpentry, metal work, agriculture and similar skills have proven highly popular and useful in many countries. In societies where women are deeply engaged in commercial activities, an emphasis on numeracy is often the most appreciated part of a programme, especially if it focuses upon problems and operations frequently encountered in daily life. Elements concerned with health, sanitation, nutrition and family planning are also of relevance and interest to women. The teens and twenties are the peek reproductive years. Information on how to plan, space and care for children is vital to this age-group.

        
                                       Table 8
                        ADULT ILLITERACY RATES BY SEX IN 1990
                                          
        
                                           MEN                 WOMEN
                                          
        
             BANGLADESH                    52.9                78.0
             BRAZIL                        17.5                20.2
             CHINA                         15.9                32.0
             EGYPT                         37.1                66.2
             INDIA                         38.2                66.3
             INDONESIA                     15.9                32.0
             MEXICO                        10.5                14.9
             NIGERIA                       37.7                60.5
             PAKISTAN                      52.7                78.9
                                          
        
             * Compendium of Statistics on Literacy, 1991 Edition, UNESCO.

Family literacy programmes

have proven to be extremely popular and successful in many countries, including Indonesia and Mexico. The goal of these programmes is to offer parents instruction in how to care for and educate their children. While the pattern varies considerably, such courses usually provide instruction in areas such as health, nutrition, child development and how to prepare children to succeed in school, as well as literacy instruction for the parents, usually the mother. Many programmes offer child-care services as well in order that the parents may be better able to pursue their studies. Programmes of this type are one example of the manner in which well-planned adult programmes can contribute to progress toward the goal of UPE.

In brief, programmes for adolescents and adults have to be conceived, planned and implemented within the framework of a wider EFA strategy. Their role is to prepare the ground for successful primary schooling of children through parental education, to complete the task of basic education begun in the school with programmes for adolescents and young adults that develop and apply their knowledge and skills, and to contribute to the emergence of a literate society through literacy and post-literacy action.

The immense challenge of combating adult illiteracy will remain for decades to come and will have to receive continuing attention. But, with the progressive achievement of UPE, the demand for a wide range of adult education programmes can be

expected to grow enormously, as it has already done in China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico and elsewhere. Basic education, as the World Conference on Education for All emphasized, should not be conceived as an end in itself, but as a foundation for lifelong learning.

2. Summary of Action for Adolescents and Adults

Bangladesh:

The 1991 census placed the adult literacy rate at just under 35 per cent, 44 per cent for men and 23 per cent for women. A large-scale literacy effort was launched in 1980 and reportedly achieved positive results. Nonetheless, it was abandoned in 1982. Since then, adult literacy efforts have been sporadic and on a modest scale. Nearly all on-going literacy work is conducted by NGOs, much of it dedicated to the education of women. This is an obvious priority given that the literacy rate for women is only half of that for men.

Presently, proposals for reviving adult literacy efforts are under consideration. One proposal calls for the setting up of a national academy of non-formal education to conduct research on and produce materials for adult literacy programmes. Another pending proposal would establish a directorate of adult education that would plan, implement and monitor adult and non-formal education programmes. Perhaps, however, the main need is not for the creation of superstructures, but for ensuring action in the field. To meet this need, a proposal presently under discussion would create a network of adult education committees at all levels to operate literacy programmes and rural libraries. Bangladesh's professed goal is to increase its literacy rate to 62 per cent in the year 2000. For the time being, it is depending mainly upon the expansion of the primary education system to achieve this objective.

Brazil :

is engaged in a critical review of and reflection upon its programmes for youth and adults. The need for such programmes is evident given that one-third of youth between the ages of 15 and 17 years have never attended school at all or dropped out in the first years of primary school. In the 18-24. age-group, the situation is even more serious: 45 per cent have less than a full primary education. In the 1960s and early 1970s, mass literacy campaigns and generic training programmes were considered the way to cope with illiteracy and under-education. The results, however, proved disappointing. Subsequently, for a brief and enthusiastic period, tele-education was regarded as almost a panacea for serving youth and adults. While distance education clearly has a role to play in a nation of continental proportions, by itself, it cannot provide an answer. Presently, programmes for youth and adults are seen as means for ensuring the right to basic education. It is proving difficult, however, to meet the vast and varied volume of demand

caused by the lack of opportunities to pursue education in childhood. The need to create a special system of education to serve youth and adults is also proving problematic. Brazil's ten-year Education for All plan sets the objective of expanding 'educational services provided to youth and adults, prioritizing the 15-to-29-year age bracket, offering basic education opportunities equivalent to four grades to 3.7 million illiterates and 4.6 million under educated individuals'.

China

notes that 'literacy work has achieved tremendous success, a total of 180 million illiterates and semi-literates having been made literate'. The emphasis on literacy work dates back to the very origins of the People's Republic and, indeed, pre-dates its establishment. This emphasis continues. In 1988, the State Council issued Regulations on Literacy work setting new strategies and priorities in the light of China's current development needs.

The scale of adult education in China is impressive. There are 155,000 adult primary schools with an enrolment of 8.5 million served by 700,000 teachers. Included in this total are over 5.6 million farmers enrolled in 110,000 literacy classes. There are, In addition, 228,000 cultural and technical training schools for adults with an enrolment of over 30 million. Yet, the need for literacy efforts continues. There are an estimated 180 million illiterates and semi- illiterates in the adult population, 61 million of them between the ages of 15 and 45 years. Over 90 per cent of illiterates live in rural areas; women represent 70 per cent of the total.

China attributes the success of its literacy efforts to five factors:

1. Effective leadership at all levels, especially by those responsible in townships and villages.

2. The conduct of promotion and publicity activities: 'without the support of society and the sincere participation of illiterates, success is impossible'.

3. The integration of literacy instruction with training in practical skills. 'Literacy education in China has changed from the model of the 1950s, focused only on learning to read and write, through the addition of content linked to production and daily life'.

4. An effective system of assessment linked to the issuance of literacy certificates to those able to pass required tests.

5. The linkage of literacy and post-literacy to the universalization of primary education. The national literacy strategy can be summed up as: prevention, eradication and amelioration'.

Egypt:

Government efforts to combat adult illiteracy in Egypt date back nearly half a century. Despite some successes, however, illiteracy continues to be a major problem. As in other countries, this is in large measure the result of population growth. While the rate of illiteracy among adults (15 years+) has declined from over 85 per cent in 1937 to 49 per cent in 1986, the number of illiterates rose during the same period from 9.8 million to 17.2 million. Illiteracy is unevenly distributed. In 1986, the literacy rate for women was 38 per cent as compared to 62 per cent for men. Higher than average rates of illiteracy also prevail in rural areas, especially in Upper Egypt.

Egypt is now engaged in a serious effort to reduce illiteracy. A National Plan of Action has been developed, covering the period 1990- 1999. Key elements of the Plan are:

1. development of linkages between adult education and the national development plan;

2. according special attention to rural areas (especially hamlets) and women;

3. development of a democratic environment encouraging mobilization of efforts throughout the country.

The aims of the Plan are the elimination of illiteracy in the 15- 30 age-group and its reduction in the population over 35 years of age. An Agency for the Eradication of illiteracy and Adult Education has been established to oversee the programme; implementation has been decentralized to the governorates.

Egypt's approach to combating illiteracy involves both preventive and curative measures. The expansion of schooling, especially in disadvantaged areas, is seen to provide a first line of defense. But, with more than 8 million illiterates in the 15 to 35 age-group, adult literacy programmes are evidently essential. While Egypt has witnessed many endeavours to tackle its massive problem of illiteracy, the present programme differs from previous efforts in that it enjoys the strong support of the national leadership which views its success as a national priority.

India:

claims the 'dubious distinction' of leading the world in the number of illiterates. It also has a vast and rich experience in literacy work upon which to draw. The National. Literary Movement (NLM), established on the basis of a critical review of earlier experience, provides technical support and leadership in a campaign targeting the estimated 121 million illiterates in the 15 to 35 age-group. The policy of the NLM has been strongly influenced by the success of the mass literacy campaign launched in the Ernakulam district of Kerala in January 1989. This highly successful undertaking was the precursor to some 175 Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) that have been conducted to date in 212 districts of India. The TLCs are characterized

as 'area-specific, time-bound volunteer-based, cost-effective and outcome oriented'. Social mobilization is the key to their success. At present, an estimated 31 million learners in the 9 to 45 age-range are engaged in campaigns throughout India. They are assisted by nearly 4 million volunteers. The aim is to extend the TLC approach to 100 million learners in 345 districts.

An appraisal of these campaigns notes that a strength of the TLCs is 'that It has proved that learners, despite age and disability, despite social and cultural heterogeneity, despite class, caste and gender divides, can learn with self-confidence, joy and excitement. They can see for themselves the pace and progress of learning. They can retain and apply the benefits of learning to real life situations. Campaigns for total literacy have, in this sense, promoted social and emotional integration. They have also promoted linguistic integration and communal harmony. The teaching-learning process in the campaigns has created and reinforced an awareness of needs, rights and obligations. This awareness has manifested Itself In enrolment and retention of children In the school system, immunization of pregnant mothers and children, health, hygiene, environmental conservation, ... small family norm, etc. Yet another strength of the campaign is that women are participating in the teaching-learning process in much larger number and with much greater enthusiasm than men. They have become more vocal, more articulate and more assertive' of their needs than ever before'.

While the TLC movement is at the centre of India's literacy efforts, experience has taught Indians the importance of follow-up or post-literacy. The danger of mass campaigns based on social mobilization is that their results, while impressive, may prove ephemeral if opportunities and incentives to continue to read and learn are not provided. While different models and approaches are being tested, the overall strategy is to establish learning groups and centres that can serve as 'information windows' for providing materials on health, agriculture, family planning and development and training activities within the district. In brief, India is coming to grip with its massive problem of adult illiteracy and doing so in a way that recognizes adult literacy as an essential element in a wider EFA movement which, in turn, is part and parcel of overall national development efforts.

Indonesia:

The expansion of primary and non-formal education has had a significant impact on the incidence of illiteracy. In 1980, it was estimated that there were 30 million illiterates of ten years of age or older, 29 per cent of the population in the age- group. In 1990, the number of illiterates aged 10+ had declined to 21.5 million and the rate of illiteracy to 16 per cent. Women illiterates outnumber men by 2 to 1; 5 out of every six illiterate Indonesians live in rural areas.

The 8.5 million illiterates between the ages of 10 and 44 years are the target of Indonesia's literacy efforts. Illiteracy in this age-group was reduced by nearly half between

1980 and 1990, with the greatest progress being made among women. Overall literacy rates in 1990 were estimated at 89 per cent for women and 95 per cent for men. It is planned to virtually eliminate illiteracy within the 10 to 44 age-group by the year 2000.

Indonesia has given considerable attention to continuing education, particularly by developing non-formal education equivalency programmes. The so-called Packet A programmes prepare learners to take the equivalency examination for elementary education. The more recently developed Packet B materials prepare learners for the equivalency examination for junior high school. A wide variety of learning materials have also been developed for post-literacy income- generating programmes. Indonesia's efforts in post-literacy and continuing education are widely recognized as innovative and effective and have been honoured with a UNESCO international literacy prize.

The rapid changes in the job market have increased the demand for continuing education at all levels. While originally developed for drop-outs from the primary school, programmes are now demanded by graduates from the primary, secondary and even tertiary levels. This transformation of adult education from a preoccupation with literacy work to a broader concern with many forms and levels of education is one that other countries can expect to experience as EFA efforts raise the educational levels of their populations.

Mexico:

According to the Mexican census of 1990, there are 6,161,000 illiterate people over the age of 15 years, representing 12.4 per cent of the adult population. The government has undertaken to reduce this figure by one-third by 1994 and has provided additional assistance to those states with the highest illiteracy rates to meet this goal.

The National Institute of Adult Education,

the service responsible for promoting adult literacy, operates three distinct Spanish-language programmes: one for rural areas, another for urban populations and a third aimed at adolescents. The first two programmes, in addition to being offered in centres, are broadcast by radio. in addition, a major effort is being made in the area of post- literacy or follow-up. Numerous booklets have been published dealing with a variety of subjects, including health, nutrition, environment and housing. In addition, communities have been provided with mimeographs that are used to produce local newsletters in order to permit learners to express themselves as well as to receive information. Literacy programmes are also operated in 34 indigenous languages.

Adult education in Mexico, of course, extends far beyond adult literacy. Programmes allowing adults to earn school equivalency certificates at both the primary and the secondary levels are widely offered. In addition, a wide range of vocational and professional courses is available. Many courses combine practical instruction in the work-places with theoretical

training in schools or institutes. The re-training of adults has become a vital need as a result of the rapid modernization. of the Mexican economy.

Nigeria:

'Each one teach one, or fund the teaching of one' is the slogan and strategy with which Nigeria is seeking to revitalize its literacy efforts. It is acknowledged by the government that on- going literacy programmes are 'making little Impact on the problem'. In the period 1986-1990, literacy programmes enrolled a total of only 3.4 million learners, of whom fewer than two million earned certificates. In a nation with an estimated illiteracy rate of nearly 40 per cent and an illiterate adult population estimated at 35 million, these efforts are clearly insufficient to meet the goal Nigeria has set itself: reducing the rate of illiteracy among adults to 20 per cent by the year 2000. It is projected that 26 million adults will have to become literate before the end of the century to achieve this goal. Nigeria's task in overcoming illiteracy is enormously complicated by the fact that 40 per cent of its children are not in school - either having never enrolled or having dropped out. As a result, each year the ranks of the illiterates are swelled as unschooled children enter adulthood.

Illiteracy rates for women lag some 25 percentage points behind those for men. Moreover, although the situation has improved in recent years, women still make up less than 40 per cent of the enrolment in literacy classes. The impact of the Better Life Programme for rural women, providing training in literacy and functional skills through multipurpose centre appears to be responsible for the greater interest women have shown in literacy courses in recent years. Women and out-of-school girls are identified as key target groups for future functional literacy efforts.

Nigeria views the future development of its literacy programmes with cautious optimism. Over the past decade, a number of conditions necessary for launching programmes on a larger scale have been fulfilled:

- staff have been trained on a large scale;

- teaching/learning materials have been developed in major languages;

- post-literacy programmes have been prepared, offering instruction in popular practical skills: bookkeeping, health, nutrition, agriculture, food processing and storage, home management, cookery, crafts, carpentry, plumbing, weaving, and arts and crafts; and

- flexible calendars and class schedules have been developed to enable teaching and training activities to be better fitted into the lives of learners.

The ultimate success of the programme will depend, however, upon efficient social mobilization capable of making literacy teaching and learning a strongly felt moral duty. If this can be achieved, Nigeria's literacy activities will be given fresh impetus and purpose.

Pakistan:

Adult literacy work in Pakistan is largely in the hands of NGOs and is conducted on a relatively modest scale. The Government is fully conscious of the serious situation regarding adult illiteracy - only an estimated 34 per cent of the adult population and only 16 per cent of women are literate - but resources are limited and a decision has been taken to make primary education 'the cutting edge' of EFA strategy: preventive measures being the first line of defense in reducing illiteracy. Selected adult literacy activities will also be supported, especially for women.

The government hopes to encourage the private sector, NGOs and communities to play a more active role in the promotion of literacy programmes. The establishment of foundations which would be empowered to make matching grants of public funds to those conducting approved educational programmes is under consideration. An example of the type of innovative programme the government hopes to see developed and spread throughout the country is the Female Quranic Literacy Project. This project builds upon the desire of parents to have their daughters taught to read the Holy Quran. As a result, an estimated 41 per cent of women are able to read holy scripture whereas only 16 per cent can read secular texts. Given that the Arabic script in which the Quran is written is similar to the script used for writing Urdu, the national language, the Government is testing an approach in 200 centres whereby Quranic schools would also teach secular literacy to adolescents and adults. Approaches such as this, which build upon existing community institutions, have the potential of reaching large numbers at low cost.

Pakistan has set the objective of raising its literacy rate to 70 per cent by the year 2000. The government recognizes that this is an enormous challenge, one which may well be beyond its reach. A more limited goal for the next two to three years might be to develop and test effective and economic approaches for launching large-scale programmes, when additional resources become available.

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Lessons of Experience:

There are many lessons and conclusions that might be drawn from the foregoing summaries. Here are three:

1. It is adolescents and young adults who are the target group for most of the programmes discussed above. In Brazil, the age-group 15 to 29 is the focus; in other countries, it is the group 15 to 35 or 15 to 45. While motivated participants of older ages should not be excluded, experience demonstrates that young learners are usually the most highly motivated. Hence, in a situation where resources are limited, a focus on the younger age-group, especially on young women, is a logical choice.

2. As concerns the content of programmes, a progressive shift can be noted from 'pure' literacy to programmes in which literacy and numeracy are part of a wider curriculum that includes 'functional elements' such as skills training. Such programmes tend to be more motivating for many learners. Experience would suggest, however, that 'functionality' should be broadly interpreted to include the cultural as well as the economic. The key point is not that this or that training be provided, but that programmes be designed to respond to the interests and needs of learners.

3. Experience also suggests that literacy, and educational efforts in general, are more likely to succeed as part of a wider movement of mobilization, empowerment and reform than in static social environments. This is especially true of programmes for women. Motivation for education is highest when new opportunities and possibilities are emerging and literacy and adult education are seen as necessary means for playing a new and more fulfilling role in a changing society. For these same reasons, as both historical and contemporary experiences attest, adult literacy work has often been an important factor in preparing the ground for the spread of schooling. it constitutes a powerful demonstration of society's commitment to learning as a force of progress and change.

PROGRAMMES FOR ADOLESCENTS AND ADULTS