EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF GIRLS AND WOMEN
Education has been regarded as the most significant instru- ment for changing women's subjugated position in the society. It not only develops the personality and rationality of individuals, but qualifies them to fulfil certain economic, political and cul- tural functions and thereby improves their socio-economic status. One of the direct expectations from educational development in a society is the reduction in the inequality among individuals and that is why Education was included as the basic right of every human being in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The constitution of UNESCO also directs its efforts to achieve `The ideal of equality of educational opportunity without regard to race, sex or any distinction, economic or social'.
In India, the increase in the educational facilities and oppor- tunities for women and the removal of traditional bars on entry of women to particular branches and levels of education, came to be supported by all champions of women's emancipation from the 19th Century onwards. However, the Indian reformers of the 19th Century wanted to educate women to perform their role as good wives and mothers and not to make them as direct active participants in the process of national development of the country. The colonial authorities generally supported this limited view-point of women's education. The expansion of education and health services in the 20th Century, however, precipitated a need for women teachers and doctors which resulted in the incorporation of these two vocations in the programme of women's education.
After independence, the Constitutional guarantee of equality changed the conceptual thinking of educational development of women and gave a call to women to play multiple roles in the
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polity, the economy and the society and the educational deve- lopment of women began in that broad direction. This is amply evident in the Government's policy, reports of various commit- tees and commissions set up for this purpose and in the objectives of Development Plans formulated after Independence. The National Policy of Education provides that "The Education of girls should receive emphasis not only on grounds of social justice but also because it accelerates social transformation". The very First Five Year Plan of Education stated "The general purpose and objective of Women's education cannot, of course, be different from the purpose and objectives of the men's edu- cation .... At the Secondary and even at the University stage women's education should have a vocational or occupational bias". Similarly, the Secondary Education Commission (1953) --ated that "In a democratic society where all citizens have to discharge their civic and social obligations, differences which may lead to variations in the standard of intellectual develop- ment achieved by boys and girls can be envisaged". The Re- port of the Committee on Differentiation of Curricula for boys and girls (1959) also emphasised on the same type of education and same role of men and women in the society. The Educa- tion Commission (1964-66) endorsed the recommendations of all committees and commissions about the equality in the edu- cational development of women. The Government's national policy also laid down that "The education system must produce young men and women of character and ability committed to national services and development. Only then will education be able to play its vital role in promoting national progress, creating a sense of common citizenship and culture and strengthening national integration".
In spite of the constitutional provision of equality and the recommendations of the committees and commissions about the provision for the same type of education for women as for men, the traditional limited view point of women's education, with a separate role of women in the society. has had a great influence on the planning for women's education. Before, however, we review the accelerated growth and progress of women's educa-
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tion and analyse the problems of their future development after independence, it will be interesting and informative to trace very briefly the history of women's education during British regime. This historical background will be helpful in properly under- standing the trends that have followed the achievements in the era after independence in this field.
Educational Development of Women in Pre-independence period Although education in India started receiving some attention under British rule with the Charter Act of 1813 and obtained full recognition in the famous Macaulay's Minute of 1835, edu- cation of women in India still remained absent from the Indian society. It is only when the "Wood's Dispatch", containing Educational development programme was passed in 1854 by the East India Company that a special reference was made of educa- tion and employment of women and the Government assumed direct responsibility for making women literate. Some progress of women's education particularly at first stage of education that is primary level, was reported only in respect of a separate school for girls. Some women were also imparted training for appointment as teachers in girls' schools. But it is only from the year 1882, when systematised educational data began to be collected quinquennially, that the progress of women's education came to be assessed.
From 1882-1947, the progress of girls education was re- ported to be slow but steady, confined as it was to the affluent sections of the society or those families which were in the favour of foreign rulers. Nevertheless, starting from no education at the advent of British rule that is 0 per cent of the total enrolment of educational institutions under formal system, the enrolment of women increased to nearly 25 per cent of the total enrolment by the end of the British regime (1947) and this, is in no way a mean achievement. Due credit should be given to the foreign rulers at least for initiating the process of educational develop- ment of women as a part of the formal system of education in India. Table 7 shows, at a glance, the progress of edu- cation of girls and women in Pre-Independence period:-
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Table 7. Education of Girls and Women in Pre-Independent Period
Years
Percentage Primary Middle Secondary Univer- Other Total
of literacy Schools Schools Schools sities & Institu-
of women Colleges tions
1981-82 0.2 124491 * 2054 6 515 127066
1901-02 0.7 345397 34386 10309 264 2812 393168
1921-22 1.8 1198550 92466 36698 1529 11599 1340842
1946-47 6.0 3475165 321508 280772 23207 56090 4156742
No. of girls enrolled per zoo boys in 36 22 for middle and 14 12 for general coll- 12 for general
1946-47 for secondary schools egiate education education and 7
for professional
education
Source : Quinquennial Report-Ministry of Education and Culture.
*Included in secondary schools.
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Highlights of the progress of women's education in Pre- Independent period with an interval of two decades is briefly narrated below: -
1881-1902
As indicated in the quinquennial reports of Education in India, the significant achievement between 1881-1902 in the field of Women's education was the entry of women in colleges. For the first time, two Indian women graduated in 1883 and enrolment in women's schools and colleges rose to 3.93 lakhs in 1902 from only 1.27 lakhs in 1882. Similarly, people began to recognise the importance of Secondary education for women and social taboos of stopping girl's education maximum up to primary level began cracking under the weight of social ameliora- tion. The enrolment of girls in secondary schools during these two decades increased five times. Primary education enrolment, of course, expanded from 1.24 lakhs to 3.45 lakhs, during this period. While in 1882, only one girl out of 3 was studying in mixed school, the ratio went up, to one out of two in 1902. bidding a farewell to the malice of age-old prejudice against co- education, at least in the primary schools.
1902-1922
The two decades from 1902-22 witnessed a more active role of the Government in the field of women's education on the one hand and impact of Freedom Movement on women's edu- cation on the other. It is during this period that Lord Curzon supported the cause of Women's education and the similar policy was enunciated by a Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913). As is evident from the above table the growth of women's education was noticed at all stages of education, parti- cularly at collegiate level and their passing out in examination with excellent results exploded the myth of inferiority of women. However, the landmark in the history women's education in India during this period was the establishment of an Indian
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Women's University in 1916 in Bombay, which is now known as Shrimati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women's University, catering to the needs of higher education of nearly 10 thousand girls and women every year. This University was established with the following objectives:-
(a) To make provision for the higher education of women through modern Indian Languages (mother tongue) as the media of instruction;
(b) To regulate pre-university education; to start, aid, maintain and affiliate institutions for such education and to formulate courses of studies specially suited to the needs and requirements of women;
(c) To make provision for the training of teachers for primary and secondary schools;
(d) To institute and confer such degrees and diplomas, titles, certificates and marks of honour in respect of degrees and examinations as may be prescribed by the regulation; and
(e) Such other objects, not inconsistent with these as may be added from time to time by the senate.*
While girls' enrolment in primary schools recorded an un- precedented increase from 3.45 lakhs in 1901-1902 to 11.99 lakhs in 1921-22, the increase in secondary education was from 10309 to 36698 during this period. The enrolment in colleges increased six times during these two decades. More girls came up for higher professional courses like medicine and teaching, where the enrolment of girls was of the order of 197 and 67 respectively in 1921-22. Technical and Vocational schools showed a record
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increase from 2812 to 11599 during this period, the vocation- wise break up of which is given below:-
No. of
Schools for girls under
Instruction
Teaching 3,903
Art 32
Medicine 334
Technical and Industrial Careers 2,744
Commercial careers 308
Agriculture 79
Other carters 4,199
Total 11,599
1922-1947
During this period, women's education got a further fillip, as a result of the rise in the marriage age of women, and the awakening among women injected by Social Reformers and Mahatma Gandhi's Movement and also by the establishment of the All India Women's Conference (1926). The significant event of the period was the emphasis laid on women's education in the Report of the Hartog Committee which stated that education should not be the privilege of one sex only, but equally the right of both the sexes and that women's education would be ex- panded further for the advancement of education in India..
It is during this period that a visible progress of women's education was witnessed. The enrolment of girls in primary schools moved up from nearly 12 lakhs in 1922 to nearly 35 lakhs in 1946-47 and enrolment in secondary schools increased from about 37 thousands in 1921-22 to a record of 281 thou- sands. But the significant progress occured in higher education where the enrolment of girls increased from merely 1529. In
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1921-22 to as high as 23,207, followed by improvement in the demand for women in the employment market. In spite of all this expansion, the enrolment of girls was only 2.4 percent of their population.
Table 8 below indicates the position of girls education in 1946-47:-
Table 8 -Education of women, 1946-47
No. of Enrolment
Type of Institution Institutions in Institu-
tions for
Women
General Education
Universities 1 -
Arts and Science Colleges 59 7,105
High Schools 586 1,82,757
Middle Schools 1,201 1,81,113
Primary Schools 14,336 12,01,817
Special Education
Professional and Technical Colleges 4 297
Training Colleges 11 660
Vocational and other Schools 785 30,843
Unrecognised Institutions 537 25,229
Grand Total 17,520 16,29,821
N.B. (1) Students in Universities are not included.
(2) These figures refer to the Indian Union only.
Source: Education in India Ministry of Education and Culture.
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General Comments The slow but steady progress of women's education in the Pre-Independent period should be analysed after taking into account some of the socioeconomic factors such as prevalence of Purdah system and segregation of women-folk, Child marriage, sati, subjugation after marriage and absence of Divorce System, enforced asceticism for widows, system of Devadasis, Female enforced asceticism for widows, system of Devadasis, female cation of women. Nevertheless, the wheels of women's educa- tion were put on the right lines during the British regime and the efforts of social and political reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy and Mahatma Gandhi strengthened the movement of women's emancipation and consequently their educational development,