INPUTS IN PRIAMARY SCHOOLS WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF CONCENTRATION OF SCHEDULED TRIBE STUDENTS
ABSTRACT The present study focuses on the school input differences in the primary school with different levels of concentration of ST students. The data of Baseline Assessment study of six states comprising 1,502 schools are analysed. The input variables like physical facilities and services, coverage by OB scheme and instructional aids, teacher quality and teaching patterns were treated through non-parametric statistical technique. It was found that in some of the states, schools with high concentration of ST students had less pucca building facilities, availability of furniture and equipments, safe drinking water and toilet facilities, instructional aids, preschool facilities, more under qualified teachers, less number of days of in-service training, less experienced teacher and more use of multigrade teaching.
Context and Focus Scheduled Tribes constitute disadvantaged segment of population in India. Scheduled Caste population is scattered all over because of the job sharing prevalent in the caste system in India. Scheduled Tribes have a variety of scatter. There are locations which are totally inhabited by tribal communities. They live
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in tribal groups. Tribal groups in some of the area have integrated with the rest of the communities in some areas due to mobility engineered by development or natural disasters. Tribal communities are represented in small measure in non-tribal areas through organized employment.
The educational development of tribal communities also followed a different course affecting their development. For example, in tribal population, the development is preceded by intensive education development. So the tribal communities are relatively better on quality of life indicators. The situations however is different in plains. The education remains low among the tribal communities and the development activities pushed them further due to their withdrawal tendency to preserve their culture. Despite positive discrimination and special attention of the state and central governments, education and economic levels remain low.
The Baseline Assessment Study on learning achievement indicates low level of performance and high rate of drop out among tribal students. With reference to their achievement as reported in Baseline Assessment Study, the mean score of mathematics and language varies from 5 to 19 and 9 to 24 respectively (Jangira et. al., 1994). Also the poor performance of SC/ST children in mathematics is reported by HLM analysis in the state of Tamil Nadu (Rath & Saxena, 1995). The school inputs therefore assume significance. Do inputs differ in schools with different concentration of tribal children? It is a
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logical question. The present study based on the reanalysis of the Baseline Assessment Study on learning achievement seeks to answer this question.
Coverage Micro-analysis of Baseline Assessment Study on learning achievement conducted in DPEP districts was carried out to investigate the status of inputs in primary schools with different levels of concentration of ST students. The total percentage of ST enrolment in primary schools of respective states were calculated prior to find out their concentration level in the selected schools included for investigation. As shown in Fig. 1, high percentage of ST enrolment is in Orissa whereas, it is quite low in Tamil Nadu. The number of districts, schools covered and the total percentage of ST enrolment in the states are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1
The Number of Districts and Schools
State *Total % of Number of Number of
Enrolment Districts Schools
Assam 18.31 4 161
Kerala 1.23 3 113
Madhya Pradesh 15.42 19 808
Maharashtra 9.59 3 135
Orissa 21.06 4 165
Tamil Nadu .92 3 120
Total 36 1502
* Source : Selected Educational Statistics on Sept. 1993
(Studies in Educational Statistics No. 5) MHRD, 1994
Variables The variables involved in the study are "ST concentration index" and "school inputs". The school inputs were classified. The school building and services covered ownership of the building, type of building, additional requirement of classroom, availability of playground, safe drinking water, toilet facilities, furniture and equipment. The coverage of the school by OB scheme and instructional aids also form a component of the physical facilities. Preschool and incentive schemes to children were also covered. Another significant category relates to teacher quality which covers education and professional training. The latter includes initial training, inservice training and teacher experience. Multigrade teaching, teacher attendance and teacher pupil ratio also fall in this
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TABLE 2
Variables Covered in the Study
Variables Name Code Variable Statistics Used
Description
School Building and Services
Building BDGO % Own Building Chi-Square
Pucca Building BDGPC % Building -do-
Additional Classroom ADCL Numbers of classroom K-W ANOVA
Furniture and
Equipments FEQT Numbers of FEQT -do-
(Total 9 items) available
Playground PLG % Schools having Chi-square
Playground
Safe Drinking Water SDW % schools having -do-
SDW facilities
Toilet TLT % schools having -do-
TLT facilities
OB coverage
OB Scheme OB % of schools -do-
covered by OB
instructional Aids INAD Numbers of INAD K-W ANOVA
available
Pre-school and Incentives
Pre-School Facility PSC % of schools having Chi-square
PSC facilities
Pupil Incentive PINC % of schools having -do-
PINC
Teacher Quality
Academic
Qualification AQUAL 8th=1. Matric=2. K-W ANOVA
H.S.=3. Grad-4. PG--5
Below Class 10 BLX Mean % of BLX K-W ANOVA
Initial Training INTR mean % Of INTR K-W ANOVA
Inservice Training INSET Number of Days K-W ANOVA
Teaching Experience TEXP Number of Years K-W ANOVA
Multigrade Teaching MGT % of Teachers adopt MGT K-W ANOVA
Teacher Attendance TAT Always-1.Max.time-2.
Sometime=3, Very few=4 K-W ANOVA
Teacher Pupil Ratio TPR Ratio K-W ANOVA
Teaching Pattern
Total Hours
Devoted to HRT Hours K-W ANOVA
Teaching
Time for
Talking With TLK Minutes K-W ANOVA
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Variables Name Code Variable Statistics Used
Description
pupil
Tune for Group Learning GRL Minutes K-W ANOVA
Time for Practice PRACT Minutes K-W ANOVA
Tim for Home Work HCRT Minutes K-W ANOVA
Correction add Feedback
Home Work Given HWG Regularly-1.Sometime=2.
Not at all-3 K-W ANOVA
Teacher Read Textbook TXTR mean yes K-W ANOVA
Child Rod Aloud CHR mean Yes K-W ANOVA
Child Self Read CHRS Mean Yes K-W ANOVA
Textbook Home Work HTXT Mean yes K-W ANOVA
category. Teaching patterns constitute another dimension of inputs to schooling. It covers time for teaching, time for talking with pupils, group learning practice, home work, opportunity to read aloud and the use of textbooks. Health facilities include availability of firs aid kits, provision of health check-up and immunization. The variables along with variable description and statistics used are summarized in Table 2.
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ST Concentration Index (STI) An index indicating the concentration level of ST students in primary schools was constructed. Percentage of ST students in each school was worked out and frequency distribution for each state was investigated. Schools having 75-100 per cent enrolment of ST students was considered as the high concentration group. The enrolments of 50-74 and 25 to 49 per cent were categorized into average and low concentration group respectively. High and average groups were major focus in this study because these schools may be equipped with more facilities due to various beneficial programmes launched by the Ministry of Social and Human Resource Development. The fourth category consists of 0-24 per cent of enrolment where percentage of schools without any ST students were mentioned. To level this percentage (1-24 per cent) of ST children may not be meaningful as they are functionally integrated with other students in the school system. The percentage of schools WI under each category is presented in Fig. 2. The procedure was applied to each of the states. The description of schools in different categories is given in Table 3.
TABLE 3
Number of Schools
State High Average Low No ST Total**
Concentration Concentration
(75-100%) (50-74%) (25-49%) (0-24%)
Assam 36 10 9 104 (86.5)* 159
Kerala 0 4 10 99 (69.7) 113
Madhya Pradesh 69 58 90 543 (36.1) 760
Maharashtra 4 3 11 108 (34.3) 126
Orissa 29 25 32 78 (16.7) 164
Tamil Nadu 6 2 1 104 (73.1) 113
Total 144 102 153 1036 1435
*Parenthesis value shows the percentage of schools not having ST
students
** Missing cases are excluded
Statistical Analysis The distribution of ST enrolment percentage in each state indicated a negative skewed distribution. Therefore Non-Parametric statistics were used for studying the significance of difference between the levels of inputs in schools in the four
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categories. For the variables with dichotomous response like ownership of school building, pucca and other buildings, etc., Chi- square was used. For variables which had continuous scores achieved through aggregation of items or scaling, Kruskal-Wallis One Way Analysis of Variance (K-W ANOVA) was used. In this statistics each observation is replaced by ranks. The lowest value is replaced with rank 1, and the highest value with total number of cases in the observation. To test the significance of difference, group mean ranks are compared by obtaining a Chi-square value. However in the tabular presentation, mean and SD. of respective variables are presented in place of mean ranks for meaningful interpretation. Only Chi-square value obtained from K-W ANOVA with its probability level are mentioned against the mean and SD. Mann-Whitney Utest was applied to find out significance of difference between different pairs of means. The power-efficiency of these two tests are 95.5 per cent when compared to F and t-test respectively (Siegel, 1956).
Results
SCHOOL BUILDING Table 4 represents the percentage of schools in different categories having own building and pucca building facilities. The results reveal no significant difference among the four categories of schools in respect of buildings except in Madhya Pradesh. In Madhya Pradesh the schools with high concentration of ST students had significantly higher percentage of own buildings than no ST groups. Whereas average concentration group lacked pucca building facilities in comparison to other three groups. High concentration group lagged behind
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20 pet cent of pucca building facilities in comparison to no ST group. Though the P-value were not significant in case of other states but schools with high concentration of ST students were equipped with better building facilities (Fig.3). The special facilities for tribal areas under the tribal sub-plan and assistance from the Ministry of Welfare might have helped.
TABLE 4
School Building
State School Percentage of Schools having the Facility
Facility
High Average Low No ST Chi- P -Value
Conc. Conc. Conc. Square
Assam Building 97.2 90.0 100 91.3 2.26 .52
Pucca 30.6 40.0 22.2 22.1 2.28 .52
Building
Kerala Building N.A. 100 100 78.8 3.65 .16
Pucca N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A
Building
Madhya Building 91.3 89.7 95.6 84.5 10.12 .02*
Pradesh
Pucca 62.3 58.6 73.3 82.5 29.89 .001**
Building
Maharashtra Building 100 100 81.8 81.5 1.57 .67
Pucca 100 33.3 90.9 72.2 5.77 .12
Building
Orissa Building 96.6 100 100 93.6 3.48 .28
Pucca 75.9 48.0 59.4 73.1 7.26 .06
Building
Tamil
Nadu Building 83.3 100 100 96.2 2.35 .50
Pucca 83.3 100 100 66.3 2.19 .53
Building
ADDITIONAL CLASSROOM, FURNITURE AND EQUIPMENT Regarding availability of physical facilities, Table 5 includes the analysis of additional classroom required and existing furniture and equipment facilities in
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the schools under these four categories. Practically the requirement of extra classroom was not very different among the four groups which is especially dependent on size of the class. In the context of furniture and equipment facilities low concentration group in the State of Maharashtra, average concentration group in Orissa (Z=-3.03, P<.01), and high group in Tamil Nadu (Z=-2.13, P <.03) fall behind the no ST group (Fig. 4). On an average, the schools under no ST group had more furniture than those with high density of ST students (Table 5). More schools had building (Table 4), but less had furniture and equipments. Is it due to lack of supplies or due to culture of not using furniture is a question needing further investigation.
PLAYGROUND, DRINKING WATER AND TOILETS In Madhya Pradesh the differences in the schools having playground was significant but more schools with average concentration of ST students have more playgrounds than schools under no ST group. The playground facilities in schools of Maharashtra and Orissa covered in this study were below 50 per cent which is not only specific to schools with ST students. In Madhya Pradesh 36 per cent of school with high concentration of ST students were provided with safe drinking water facilities which was significantly less than low concentration group. In Assam, Maharashtra and Orissa however these facilities were available in less quantity for all schools. Toilet facilities were very poor in all the states
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except Kerala. Especially in Madhya Pradesh schools with average and high concentration of ST students had significantly less toilet facilities than schools under no ST and low concentration group (Fig.5). in almost all the states special attention is required for providing drinking water and toilet facilities to school with and without ST students. Regarding playground facilities special attention is required in Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
OB SCHEME AND INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS Table 7 indicates results regarding the coverage of schools by OB scheme and availability of instructional aids. The availability of 12 instructional aids: maps, globes, charts, toys, games kit, science kit, mini tool kit, reference book, children books, magazines and musical instruments were aggregated with the score of one for each set of the item. In Orissa, percentage of schools having 50-74 per cent of ST students (average group) covered by OB scheme was significantly lower than schools under no ST group. In Tamil Nadu school covered under OB scheme was significantly lower in high concentration group. Six schools were clustered in this group and only 17 per cent of those schools
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FIG. 6 OB scheme and instructional aids
were covered under OB schemes. It requires further intervention. In Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, schools with high concentration of ST students had significantly (Assam Z+-2.85, p <.01, Madhya Preadesh Z=-3.14, P<.01) less instructional aids than schools under no ST group. The percentage of schools covered under OB scheme and availability of instructional aids are presented in Fig. 6. Most of these instructional aids were supplied under OB scheme. When schools were covered under OB scheme but having less instructional aids implies that either those materials were not reached to the school or not used by the teacher. Necessary supervision and teacher training programme should be arranged for the effective implementation of OB scheme especially in the DPEP states of Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
PRESCHOOl AND INCENTIVES Table 8 represents the preschool facilities and pupil incentive schemes available to the schools with different concentration of ST students. Only in Madhya Pradesh schools with high concentration of ST students had 10 per cent less preschool facilities than schools with low concentration of ST students. However in general the availability of preschool facility was very low in all the states under study. The intervention research supported the significant contribution of preschool experience on quality and quantity of learning. Disadvantaged children were more benefited (Murlidharan and Banerjee. 1974). Therefore, specific provision should be made in general to provide preschool facilities to the ST students at an early age. Percentage of the schools with high concentration of ST students in Tamil Nadu had significantly less pupil incentives than other three categories. In Orissa the availability of pupil incentive schemes varies from 78 per cent to 83 per cent in four categories despite such a provision in
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state policy needs further investigation. In other states schools in all the four categories had one or other form of incentive schemes without any exception.
TEACHER QUALITY Five input measures of teacher quality were studied. Teacher's academic qualifications was treated as overall measure with aggregations of qualifications ranging from 10 years of schooling to 16 years of education. Each level was given a score of 1. The maximum score for a teacher was 5. The second measure was teachers with below 10 years of schooling. In Assam the mean teacher qualification score was significantly higher for school under no ST group (Z=-3.58 p <.001) than the schools with high concentration of ST students. The same
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trend was found in the state of Orissa (Z=-2.05, p<.04). It implies that in these states schools with high concentration of ST students required more qualified teachers for imparting quality education. It is surprising to note that in case of Assam the schools with high concentration of ST students had not only more number of less qualified teachers but also more number of underqualified teachers (teachers below class X). This finding needs special attention (Fig. 7). In Orissa the same pattern of result was observed though it was not statistically significant. In Madhya Pradesh underqualified teachers were less in high concentration category whereas it was more in low concentration category Except Kerala all the states under the study were more or less burdened with underqualified teachers which focuses the need of educational training programmes for the teachers to provide opportunity for their educational and professional development.
In Table 10, the percentage of trained teachers, the duration of inservice training and the number of years in teaching experience in different categories
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TABLE 8
Preschool Facility and Pupil Incentives
Percentage of Schools having the facility
State School High Average Low No Chi- P_
Facility Conc. Conc. Conc. ST Square Value
Assam Preschool 8.3 10.0 22.2 17.3 2.24 0.52
Facility
Pupil 94.4 80.0 88.9 83.7 2.99 0.39
Incentives
Kerala Preschool
Facility N.A 00 10.0 1.0 4.30 0.12
Pupil N.A 100 100 100 - -
Incentives
Madhya Preschool 10.1 10.3 20.0 9.9 7.99 0.05
Pradesh Facility
Pupil 91.3 91.4 95.6 94.3 2.04 0.56
Incentives
Mahara- Preschool 25 33.3 18.2 41.7 2.69 0.44
shtra Facility
Pupil 100 100 90.9 81.5 2.12 0.54
Incentives
Orissa Preschool 13.8 4.0 12.5 9.0 1.80 0.61
Pupil 82.8 80.0 81.3 78.2 0.32 0.95
Incentives
Tamil Preschool 00 00 00 10.6 1.05 0.79
Nadu Facility
Pupil 83.3 100 100 99.0 8.10 0.04*
Incentives
of schools were analyzed. In Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh, schools in high concentration category had significantly higher percentage (Z=-3.11, p<.002 and Z=-3.73, p<.001 respectively) of trained teachers than schools under no ST group. The same trend of result was observed in Assam also. The situation was however different in case of inservice training in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra where the schools under no ST group had higher mean number of days of inservice training. While reverse was in the case of Kerala. In Assam the schools with low concentration and no ST students had significantly more experienced teachers in terms of years of training than in other categories. The same pattern of result was also found in Madhya Pradesh. From this result a general observation can be made that the duration of inservice training was quite
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low in almost all the states, specially in Madhya Pradesh where high percentage of trained teachers were existing in schools of high concentration category but having less teaching experience and inservice training (Fig. 8). This situation call for : (a) improved opportunity for inservice education and training for teachers in tribal area, (b) formulation of rational teachers requirement and placement policy, and (c) incentive scheme for qualified and trained teachers to work in schools with high concentration of tribal students.
MULTIGRADE TEACHING, TEACHER-PUPIL RATIO AND TEACHER ATTENDANCE Table 11 gives the results regarding multigade teaching, teacher-pupil ratio and teacher attendance. In Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa the percentage of teachers reporting multigrade teaching was significantly higher in high concentration category than in other three groups. In Maharashtra, though overall group comparison was not significant but paired group mean comparison
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indicated significant difference.(Z=-1.98, P<.05). The trend indicated less number of teachers involved in multigrade teaching as one goes down to average and low concentration schools (Fig. 9). The difference in teacher-pupil ratio was not significant in any of the states except in Madhya Pradesh where the schools with no ST students had higher teacher pupil ratio. Teacher attendance as reported by pupils provided a mixed situation. It was higher in schools with no ST and with low ST student concentration but was not statistically significant. Greater attention is required for equipping teachers with multigrade teaching skills.
By and large the difference in time use was not significant in most of the
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The difference in the various uses of textbooks was not significant in states except in Tamil Nadu where it was used for assigning homework (Table 13). Though it was statistically significant but generalization should be made cautiously due to small sample, specifically in average and low concentration categories.
HOME WORK The percentage of teachers who assign home work frequently are described in Table 14. In Assam the percentage was less in schools with average and high concentration of ST students. Similarly in Madhya Pradesh, less number of teachers gave home work frequently to students of average concentration category. In other states the difference was not significant.
SCHOOL HEALTH The difference among different categories of schools were not significant except in respect of immunization and health check up in Orissa where the percentage of schools was significantly higher in the category of no ST and low concentration of ST students in comparison to high concentration category.
Implication for DPEP Intervention The present study was based on the data collected in Baseline Assessment Study. A segment of disadvantaged students, scheduled tribe, was in focus. Accessibility of school inputs to primary schools with different level of concentration of ST students were explored. The generalization of emerging findings are restricted only to the corresponding districts covered under the study from different states. The generalization also may have serious problem due to differences in ST habitats from state to state. Taking into account the individual need of each district on the basis of tribal concentration necessary intervention can be planned. The implication issues are discussed according to the school inputs covered in the study.
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A. PHYSICAL FACILITIES AND SERVICES In almost all the states schools with high, average and low concentration of ST students are functioning in their own, permanent building. In contrast the less proportion of buildings have pucca structure though not statistically significant. In Madhya Pradesh schools of high and average concentration categories are lacking pucca building facilities. As evident in baseline study result of this state the rooms are in dilapidated conditions. The same situation may be prevailing in the schools of high and average concentration category. Necessary provision should be made in district plan of Madhya Pradesh to improve the building condition of schools under these category.
Schools of high concentration category in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu and average concentration in Orissa have less furniture and equipments. Either the furniture and equipments are broken and not repaired or may not be used. The facts should be ascertained with proper supervision by the district authority and necessary action may be initiated in this regard.
Provision of drinking water and toilet facilities are not substantial in almost all the states except Kerala. It is significantly less in Madhya Pradesh. These basic facilities should be provided in the schools with high average and low concentration of ST students.
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TABLE 15
School Health
Percentage of Schools Having the Facility
State Health High Average Low No ST Chi- P-Value
Facility conc. conc. conc. Square
Assam First Aid
Kits 00 00 00 1.9 1.07 0.78
Health 22.2 30.0 11.1 12.5 3.64 0.30
Checkup
Immunization13.9 30.0 11.1 14.4 1.92 0.59
Kerala First Aid
Kits N.A 25 40 25.3 1.02 0.60
Health N.A 25 10.0 34.3 2.57 0.27
Checkup
Immunization N.A 50.0 10.0 27.3 2.56 0.28
Madhya First Aid
Kits 5.8 3.4 12.2 11.4 5.50 0.14
Pradesh Health 68.1 77.6 81.1 71.3 5.18 0.16
Checkup
Immunization31.9 43.1 50.0 47.3 6.70 0.08
Mahara- First Aid
Kits 00 00 00 21.3 4.69 0.19
shtra Health 50 66.7 63.6 70.4 0.93 0.82
Checkup
Immunization 50 33.3 54.5 65.7 2.11 0.55
Orissa First Aid
Kits 6.9 4.0 9.4 6.4 0.67 0.88
Health 34.5 12.0 37.5 44.9 8.89 0.03*
Checkup
Immunization41.4 40.0 56.3 69.2 10.62 0.01**
Tamil First Aid
Kits 16.7 50.0 00 24.0 1.24 0.74
Nadu Health 83.3 100 00 95.2 16.75 .001**
Checkup
Immunization50.0 100 00 66.3 3.62 0.30
B. OB SCHEME AND INSTITUTIONAL AIDS The coverage of OB scheme is significantly low in high and average concentration category of Orissa and Tamil Nadu respectively. The scheme may be extended to schools of these states. In Madhya Pradesh and Assam schools of high concentration category are lacking instructional aids in spite of average number of schools covered under OB scheme. Further probing is required in this regard. Teacher of these schools should be trained to use the materials provided under OB scheme.
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C. PRESCHOOL FACILITY AND PUPIL INCENTIVE Preschool experience prepares the child to meet the curriculum demand at primary stage. Eventually it checks the dropout rate. In the same manner the pupil incentive scheme motivate the children to stay at school on one hand and on the other inspire parents to send their children to school. The results reveals that preschool facility is not enough in the school of all categories. The extension of ICDS schemes to these areas or developing a model of readiness by using the low cost aids and locally available materials will solve the purpose. In all the states more than 80 per cent of schools are being covered by various incentive schemes. Further indepth study could be taken to prove its effectiveness for tribal children.
D. TEACHER QUALITY Schools of high and average concentration of ST students in the state of Assam and Madhya Pradesh are lacking trained teachers and inservice training facilities. The teachers working in these schools of Orissa and Maharashtra are also deprived of inservice training opportunity. An imperative need for inservice training is raised for the improvement of teaching and learning process in these schools. Formulation of rational teacher recruitment and placement policy is required to equip these schools with trained and qualified teachers. Further to motivate and retain these teachers working in schools with high concentration of tribal students, incentive in any form may be provided.
E. MULTIGRADE TEACHING Higher percentage of teachers in high concentration category involved in multigrade teaching specifically in Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa. If this teaching strategy is not managed properly the performance of children may deteriorate. Strategic guidelines are required to facilitate the "peer to peer" approach in multigrade teaching situation. School or area based teacher training programme should be organized for these teachers to enhance their teaching competence in multigrade teaching.
In case of teaching patterns, as an input to learning process, no significant difference is obtained among different categories of tribal student concentration. It seems the quality of teaching adopted in these schools are similar to other schools.
REFERENCES Jangira, J.K. and Ahuja. Anupam (1995). Learning Achievement of Children at Primary Level, A Baseline Assessment Study of Four Districts of Haryana Department of Teacher Education
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and Special Education. NCERT, New Delhi.
Jangira, N.K. and Paranjpe, Sandhya (1995). Learning Achievement of Children at Primary Level, A Baseline Assessment Study in Three Districts of Maharashtra, Department of Teacher Education and Special Education, NCERT, New Delhi
Jangira, N.K., Singh, Ajit and Yadav, S.K. (1994). Training Needs and Motivation of Primary School Teachers, Department of Teacher Education and Special Education, NCERT, New Delhi
Jangira, J.K. and Yadav, D.D.(1994). Learning Achievement of Primary School children in Reading and Mathematics, Baseline Assement Study of Four Districts of Assam, Department of Teacher Education and Special Education, NCERT, New Delhi
Muralidharan, R. and Banerjee, U. (1974). Effects of Preschool Education on Language and Intellectual Development of Under Privileged Children, Journal of Education and Psychology, 32 (1) pp. 10-15.
Rath, K.B. and Saxena, R.R. (1995). School Effectiveness and Learning Achievement, A DPEP Baseline Achievement Study in the State of Tamil Nadu, (Draft Report), Department of Measurement, Evaluation, Survey and Data Processing, NCERT, New Delhi.
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