The study by Zahlan has identified four major factors as contributing to the push forces. These are (i) political factors (ii) work environment and career advancement, (iii) systems of higher education; and (iv) technology policies in relation to economic development. the relative importance of these factors varies from country to country over time and it impossible to generalise.
He points out that political oppression, violence and extensive violation of human rights are common occurances. Discrimination in appointments promotion and travel are also common. In many their 6- world countries clearance by security services is an essential quali- fication to securing academic or professional post. Cases are known where writers and artists are barred by security services from membership in national professional societies.
A significant major factor is the professional mileu within which an individual has to operate. The political control of professional association, corruption and archaic attitudes and procedures often repeatedly discourage the young and aspiring reformer. Few developing countries have been able to evolve an effective professional and institutional associations capable of harnessing experiences from old wisdom and new energies.
There is little doubt that the prevailing system of higher education in practically all developing countries contribute considerably to the push forces. Many of the programmes and institutions responsible for much of professional technical and scientific manpower
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were established after World War II, Most have been modelled after those in the West. In general, these institutions are centres for diffusion of Western energy, subject to local conditions and constraints. The systems of higher education are still not rooted in local problems issues and values. Quality and relevance have not yet become the criteria for educational planning and development. The weakness of both faculty research and graduate work contribute to the maintenance of the present system. Thus, the processes, adoptation, innovation to generate more effective and appropriate teaching materials ideas and graduates are on a limited scale,
The Third World still depends heavily on foreign study for the education of its future educators. They thus continue in the acquisition of knowledge that is dissociated from the realities-of their own countries. The specialisation is within a foreign system created to serve other needs. A few who do return are not given the time, the resources or-the professional environment within which to explore relevant avenues to adopt their teaching and research.
The HQM of Third World are not in harmony with their respective societies and countries. Further-more, they feel trapped in a system that is beyond their personal control to adapt or alter. In a study of Indian scientists cited by Zahlan it was noted that many scientists investigated were troubled by the marginal position of scientific activity in India and of their own scientific research. Economic rewards and advantages of being at the center of the world science are the main factors
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attracting European, scientists to USA. The interplay of politics scientific imagination, foreign study and repressive measures have combined to slow down all the progress towards development of professional associations and effective scientific institutions.
The application of human resources to productive economic activity is depending on technology policies of a country. Zahlan points but that most of Third World countries have to walk on two legs building national technological capabilities and acquiring technology from abroad. Bother processes are of utmost complexity and deeply integrated into the political economy of the State. It is often found more expedient and profitable to adopt methods that by-pass national institution building. Foreign firms and financial institutions are available to undertake the design and implementation of complex projects. The rewards reaped by few individuals serving as agents, representatives are often enormous.
The science and technology policy instrument projects funded by international development-research centre, studies of Japanese experience in various programmes in China, India, Argentina, Brazil and Mexico have all increased confidence in the feasibility of altering political behavious to promote economic efficiency and technological performance.
Many push factors are associated with poverty, packwardness and mediocrity. The intelligent utilisation of human resources not only provide acceptable ideas and values, but also generages the necessary economic
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returns with which to finance desired and desirable social services. One of the major remaining obstacles to development has been the inability to evolve efficient and appropriate methods for integration of national scientific and technological manpower into the economic structure of Third World countries.
Pull Forces: The forces pulling HLM/HQM to industrial countries are selective. The pull acts selectively on individuals possessing desired skills and competence. The pull forces supported by employment in well paid jobs in good career opportunity. The associated-high standards of living, scientific excellence, social democracy and possibility of upward mobility all contribute to the pull. All major brain-drain recipient countries have highly developed legislation with respect to human rights, social justice intellectual property and professions. They provide suitable environments and opportunities for education of children. Although some Third World countries may offer expatriates and nationals better wages, the facts that migrants cannot acquire property and establish roots, reduce their effectiveness. There is little doubt that possibility of building a life and career in a country which welcomes migrants and grants them full civil, economic and political rights provides a powerful pull on the citizens of the Third World.
The USA plays two main roles in international migration. Traditionally, individuals and families have sought refuge in USA. Then there are professionals
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who immigrate there in response to employment opportunities" The American system of higher education enrols one-quarter of world's University students. This combined with other "pull factors" of US leads to much of migration.
UNITAR studies have delved deep into the
1. individual's motives and experiences;
2. ties with home
3. factors governing the decision to study abroad.
They have also gone in-to variations by countries and by speciality. These studies are particularly significant as they are based on the survey based data.
1. Individual's motives and experiences: The UNISTAR studies made a list of 29 items governing the individual's decision, some pulling him one way, some in another affecting their migration plans. The 29 items were classified under the following categories:
1. Economic and professional:
a) suitable job
b) income and living standard
c) working conditions: facilities, autonomy, career prospects, relations with superiors and with co-workers.
2. Personal influence:
a) Spouse
b) Feelings and interests of the children
c) Family
d) Friends
e) Colleagues at work
3. Living conditions in society:
a) where life is more interesting and more pleasant
b) Discrimination by the public
4. Political situation:
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a) Government controls
b) Nationalist feelings of respondent
The study indicates that each factor may operate as a push or pull from the home country and it may exercise a push or pull from another country. The full battery of 29 items was used to describe the choice of countries at three different times
1. as foreign study was concluding
2. as a period of foreign work (if any) was ending
3. the returnee's current choice of countries.
A limitation of study was that the respondents were asked to indicate their views or reactions governing their decisions taken earlier. They had to identify how each factor influenced them to stay on in one's country or to return. While these reflected their current views accurately, as regards past events it was essentially memory based. The replies given in regard to return home after prolonged stay abroad after conclusion of study fell into 9 clusters:
1. Working conditions
2. Professional needs
3. Colleagues
4. Societal setting
5. Alienation and discrimination
6. Politics
7. Citizenship rights
8. Influence of others
9. Interests of children
....3
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Income, quality of jobs and number of jobs falling under working conditions favoured the developed countries. The material facilities for work, best library equipment, library space and office space also were great attractions as they met professional means. Developed countries seem better then home because of closer involvement in worldwide professional events, participation in professional meetings and access to journals. There is also a common belief that professionals in developing countries are burdened too much with administrative and other distractions which made very less attractive the quality of associates makes developed countries more attractive.
Motivation to return home is in large part is determined by pushes from developed countries. Over one-third of students from developing countries feel out of place abroad. Fewer are pushed in like manner from their home countries. Racial, religious and ethnic discrimination by populations of developed countries is reported by many foreign students. An important reason for emigration is a push from the distasteful Govt. at home. But politics is not a push for everyone; small numbers feel their duty is to return and work for improvement. The most powerful attractions of the home country are non-professional personal relations, When compared to students stay- ons seems to interpret each reason more strongly in favour of emigration and less strongly in favour of home. In case of returnees their responses were more or less the same to those of the students.
...4
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The study notes that certain viewspoints have not changed since the student days. Working conditions and professional assets seem more attractive in developed countries throughout.
The influence of families and friends is a pull homewards and familiearity of life and discrimination are pushes against going or staying abroad. Unstable or dictatorial Govt. at home are strong obstacles to return.
Having acquired families and having given them experience of living abroad stay-ons report that family considerations influence emigration more than respondents at the student stage. For many reasons stay-ons are less favourable to the developed countries. In the case of returnees, the family exercises a greater influence whether to stay-on or go abroad again. Compared to the period of study, the effects of spouse and children are subs tantially in the direction of staying in the home country. Returnees who are employees in developed countries after study were muse favourable towards home at the time of completing work and less favorable toward developed countries. Like the stay-ons, the returnees had become more favourable toward home and less favourable toward developed countries during the period of work abroad. They began with strong dispositions on behalf of home and their shift in motives were small.
The reasons for migration vary widely among home countries. Acceptance ratio for motive or influence is a positive number when more persons are influenced by that factor towards home and a negative number when more are influenced by it to migrate. The ratio can vary between +1.00 if everyone chooses the home country
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and 1.00 if everyone chooses the foreign country. The ratio is 0.00 if choices of home equals choices of foreign country.
Most reasons are perceived by professionals and students by pointing clearly either toward return or emigration i.e., the acceptance ratio are substantially above or below zero. But this is not true of the judgement about where the professional can make the greatest contribution. Many developing countries are perceived as better places for professional contributions than developed societies. Others are rated worse. Nearly all nationalities report that income and living standards are more attractive in developed countries. Contact with worldwide developed libraries equipment and space are universally deemed far superior in developed countries. But a few nationalities seem less persuaded to contemplate emigration by these considerations. Some nationalities believe that routine work, such as, burdensome administration is greater at home and, therefore, they need the time for professional development, and this makes overseas jobs more attractive. The contrast between developed countries and home seems greatest to Indians, Srilankans and Egyptians. Nationalities differ over whether professionals enjoy better income and more respect abroad. Indians, Ceylonese, phillipinos, Egyptians, Cameroonians deem the status of professionals superior abroad. Venezuelans, Ghanians, Iranians, Turks, Thais and some other believe, that pay and prestige are sufficiently better at home to make these an important reason for return.
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Colleagues: Most nationalities think work abroad is far more attractive in the intellectual companionship from colleagues and the quality of assistance. As regards, societal setting if the professionals come from a developed country with long traditions and much currant output in the arts and letters, he often prefers it to the developed countries on grounds of higher culture and better quality of life (examples are Mexico, India, Pakistan and Thailand). Nationalities also vary in perception of where life is more challenging and where more can be accomplished. On balance, more students and professionals prefer their home countries and,, therefore, this is one of the few reasons pertaining to work that it has a positive acceptance ratio. In contrast some countries where many of the respondents believe that, red tape, uncertain internal conditions and favouritism prevent things from getting done and work abroad was therefore, more attractive in those cases.
Alienation and discrimination - Pushes in this regard from developed countries vary by nationality. The darker one's skin, the greater the push of racial discrimination from North America and Europe, and, therefore, the greater the preference for home country. Discrimination is usually a push by a developed country inducing return home. But in one case in our data many foreign students were drawn from minority groups that their perception of discrimination at home becomes an important reason for emigration.
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Political conditions: Where the political situation anywhere affects individuals migration decisions most nationalities on balance say that these conditions induce them to migrate. They need to maintain contacts and play a role in future developments. These are sometime strong reasons for return. Several governments have spread vernacular languages throughout schools and official business. It is widely believed to be a chief reason for brain drain but the assumption is not supported by our data. in a few countries where this is taking place such as, India and Sri Lanka our respondent cite government in policies as a reason for leaving, but the proportions are not as high.