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I N I T I A T I V E S
Since independence, the central and state
governments have been expanding the provision of primary formal and non-formal education
to realise the goal of Universilisation of Elementary Education (UEE). The challenge now
is to sustain and deepen current reforms in education and encourage local planning and
management of strategies for expanding and improving primary education.
With a view to cushioning the impact of rising costs of
text books and exercise books, the government has exempted writing and printing paper
supplied to all State Text Book Corporations from excise duty. It is expected that this
would make school text books more affordable for students from weaker sections of society.
Removal of systemic deficiencies in the implementation of
UEE and forging ahead necessitates the creation of informed public opinion and a
facilitative environment akin to that of the Total Literacy Campaign. This has to be
achieved through effective and sustained advocacy, massive community mobilisation and
consciousness building. With this perspective, a national programme of media publicity and
advocacy has been planned. The programme will target: i) teachers and all those involved
in education of children; ii) students and parents of students, particularly non-literate
parents; and iii) community opinion leaders.
The Kasturba Gandhi Shiksha Yojana, a programme to
establish residential schools for girls in all the districts which have a particularly low
female literacy rate has been announced. A sum of Rs. 2500 million has been provided in
this year's budget. The central government has also decided to grant financial incentives
and scholarships for the girl child born in families living below the poverty line.
Several central and state level initiatives have been in
operation from the early 1980s. While the design of these projects vary substantially, all
of them address the objectives and strategies of the National Policy on Education 1986.
They pay special attention to increasing girls' enrolment, improving educational outcomes,
strengthening community involvement, improving teaching and learning materials and
providing in-service teacher training. The status of some of these initiatives are
discussed below.
Operation Blackboard
This scheme launched in 1987, is aimed at improving the
school environment and enhancing retention and learning achievement of children by
providing minimum essential facilities in all primary schools. The scheme has brought
about a remarkable quantitative and qualitative improvement in primary education. In all,
523,000 primary schools have been covered as originally envisaged. These schools have been
provided with central assistance
Decentralisation
Decentralised planning and management of elementary
education is a goal set by the National Policy on Education, 1986. The Policy visualises
direct community involvement in the form of Village Education Committees (VECs) for
management of elementary education. The POA, 1992, emphasised micro planning as a process
of designing a family-wise and child-wise plan of action by which every child regularly
attends school or NFE centre, continues his or her education at the place suitable to
him/her and completes at least eight years of schooling or its equivalent at the NFE
centre.
The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments provide for
decentralisation of the activities and facilitate transfer of power and participation of
the local self-government institutions or the Panchayati Raj Institutions. It has created
a congenial ambience for the PRIs to play a more dynamic and proactive role. States are
expected to evolve institutional arrangements both in rural and urban areas for
undertaking these activities. These structures have been providing voice to women,
Scheduled Castes and Tribes, minorities, parents and educational functionaries. They have
also, been delegated with responsibilities with regard to location and relocation of
existing primary and upper schools on the basis of micro planning and school mapping. In
this regard, decentralisation of school management to grassroots level bodies is an
important policy initiative.
During the 8th plan period several innovative efforts hove
been made under the ongoing projects to establish decentralisation. For instance, the
District Primary Education Programme has shifted the planning mechanism from the state to
the district level, and Lok Jumbish has gone one step further by assigning decision making
processes to a block level committee. At the village level, a VEC has the main
responsibility for community mobilisation, school mapping, micro planning, renovation and
construction of school buildings and improvement of pedagogical curriculum. In fact, the
VECs of Shiksha Karmi schools have been activated as a result of the Lok Jumbish
programme.
Since 1993-94, the scheme has been expanded to cover upper
primary schools. More then 47,000 upper primary schools have been granted central
assistance of Rs. 40,000 each for purchase of teaching- learning materials. Also, primary
schools with enrolment exceeding 100 have been augmented with a third teacher. A Special
Orientation Programme for Primary Teachers (SOPT) to facilitate optimum utilisation of
materials supplied has also been launched to cover all primary school teachers in the
country.
The total expenditure under the scheme from 1992-93 to
1995-96 has been Rs. 8,163 million. The outlay for 1996-97 is Rs. 2,910 million.
This scheme was launched on 15 August, 1995 to give a boost
to UEE in terms of increasing enrolment, retention and attendance in primary classes by
supplementing nutritional requirements of children attending primary schools. It is an
ambitious scheme that has been operationalised throughout the country in a very short
period. The programme envisages provision of nutritious and wholesome cooked meal of 100
gms of food grains per school day, free of cost, to all children in classes I-V by
1997-98.
During 1995-96, 378 districts, 225,000 schools and 33.5
million children have been covered with an expenditure of Rs. 4,412 million. In 1996-97,
the scheme was extended to cover 55.4 million children with an expenditure of Rs. 8,110
million. The scheme has become fully operational in 1997-98 covering nearly 110 million
children in primary classes. A positive impact on school enrolment and retention has been
reported.
The DPEP launched in November, 1994 is conceived as a
beachhead for overhauling the primary education system in India. The programme aims at
operationalising the strategies for achieving UEE through district specific planning and
disaggregated target setting. It draws upon the accumulated national experience of several
state level initiatives that were started earlier. It moves away from the schematic
piecemeal approach of the earlier programmes and takes a holistic view of primary
education with emphasis on decentralised management, community mobilisation and district
specific planning based on contextually and research based inputs.
The basic objectives of DPEP are:
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To provide all children with access to primary education
either in the formal system or through the non-formal education (NFE) programme.
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To reduce differences in enrolment, dropout rates and
learning achievement among gender and social groups to less than 5%.
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To reduce overall primary dropout rates for all students to
less than 10%.
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To raise average achievement levels by at least 25% over
measured base line levels and ensuring achievements of basic literacy and numeracy
competencies and a minimum of 40% achievement levels in other competencies by all primary
school children.
The Government of India finances 85 % of the project cost
as a grant to the DPEP State Implementation Societies and the concerned state government
provides the rest. The central government's share is resourced by external funding. As of
now, IDA has approved credit amounting to $260 million and $425 million under Phase-I and
Phase-II respectively. The European Union (EU) is providing a grant of 150 million ECU.
The ODA (UK) is extending a grant of $80.21 million. The grant from the Netherlands
amounts to $25.8 million.
The first phase of the programme was launched in 42
districts in the states of Assam, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu and
Madhya Pradesh. In the second phase, the programme has been launched in 80 districts of
Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat and in
Phase I States.
DPEP has been able to set up project management structures
at district, state and national levels, create the environment and capacity for micro
planning, take up the challenge of pedagogical innovation, create a responsive
institutional base which includes both government and non-government institutions, enhance
community participation and strengthen the process of catering to special focus groups
such as tribals, scheduled castes, women and other marginalised sections.
The first phase of the programme is under evaluation. The
initial trends of impact studies are very positive. DPEP has made a decisive impact on
increasing enrolment, reducing repetition rates and improving class room processes.
While the DPEP has been targeting backward districts with
female literacy below the national average and where TLCs have stirred up a demand for
elementary education, several state level initiatives have shown tremendous potential.
These are directed at improving literacy levels in the five low literacy states of Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Bihar Education Project
Bihar Education Project (BEP) was launched in 1991 with the
express purpose of bringing about quantitative and qualitative improvement in the
elementary system in Bihar.
The project lays emphasis on the education of deprived
sections of society, such as SCs, STs and women. Participatory planning and implementation
are crucial ingredients of the project.
A midterm review highlighted certain major achievements
such as: a) a strong Mahila Samakhya component; b) organisation of VECs and community
involvement in programme implementation at grassroots level; and c) non-formal education
through NGOs. The review suggested:
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consolidation of the programme in the existing seven
districts,
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establishing strong linkages between BEP and the education
system in Bihar,
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giving greater focus to the primary stage of classes I-V,
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building better linkages with the activities in other states
under DPEP and other programmes,
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providing more emphasis to MLLs and teacher training, and
conducting periodic base line studies.
It has now been decided to extend the project to the second
phase of two years duration. The total outlay for the second phase (1996-98) is estimated
to be Rs. 613 million to be shared between UNICEF, Government of India and Government of
Bihar as per the existing funding formula of 3:2:1. The total project outlay for BEP is
Rs. 3600 million. It is proposed to merge the project with DPEP during the next five
years.
Uttar Pradesh Basic Education Programme
A project "Education for All" prepared by the
Government of Uttar Pradesh was approved by The World Bank in June, 1993. The project is
currently in operation in 12 districts. It is planned to expand the coverage to 15
districts under DPEP-II. It has an outlay of Rs. 7,288 million spread over seven years.
International Development Agency (IDA), the soft loan window of The World Bank, would
provide a credit of US$163.1 million and the state government's share would be
approximately 13 per cent of the total project cost.
The progress of implementation of the project so far has
been satisfactory. The construction work of schools and Block Resource Centres is being
completed as per schedule. Training materials for teacher trainers on DIETs have been
prepared. The first cycle of in- service teacher training was completed in October, 1995.
About 40,000 teachers have been trained.
Many educational innovations of recent years are based on
the strong foundation of community support and participation. When progress is discussed
and analysed of different levels within the project, "people's acceptance and
participation" is used as an indicator.
Mobilising the village community to take responsibility to
ensure quality education for every child, is the core strategy of both Lok Jumbish (LJ)
and Shikhsa Karmi Project (SKP) in their efforts to universalise primary education and
deliver quality education. It would not be far removed from truth if we say that community
involvement has been the key factor for the success of the two projects.
LJ has had a positive effect on the empowerment of locally
elected people, especially on female representatives at village level, who are often
active members of the LJ core teams or women's groups. The Village Education
Committees(VECs), carefully formed and trained though environmental building activities in
the LJ programme, are actively involved in school matters.
SKP has constituted VECs in 2000 villages to promote
community involvement in primary education and encourage village level planning. The role
of the VEC is to mobilise resources for maintenance, repair and construction of school
infrastructure. The VEC also helps in determining the school calendar and school timings
in consultation with the local community and Shiksha Karmis (educational workers).
The positive impact of the LJ and SKP, focusing on
supporting the teachers and the students by involving, the village community in taking
responsibility for all educational activities of the village school, is serving as a
demonstration of how deeply rooted problems of education in India can be addressed. Wide
dissemination of these innovative approaches could inspire other educational programmes
all over India and the world.
Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project
The Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project (APPEP),
practised in the south central state of Andhra Pradesh, with a female literacy of just 34
%, adopts a two-pronged strategy of improving classroom transaction by training teachers
and giving a fillip to school construction activities. The project has trained an
estimated 80,000 teachers in 23 districts and more than 3,000 teaching centres have become
operational. The project is assisted by the ODA with an estimated outlay of Rs. 1,000
million in the 8th Plan.
Shiksha Karmi Project
The Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) is being implemented since
1987, with assistance from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
(SIDA). The project aims at universalisation and qualitative improvement of primary
education in the remote and socio-economically backward villages of Rajasthan, with
primary focus on girls. Since teacher absenteeism has been found to be a major obstacle in
achieving the objective of UEE, the project uses the novel approach of substituting
teachers in dysfunctional schools with local youth known as Shiksha Karmis who are
provided with rigorous training and supervisory support. An important feature of this
innovative project is the mobilisation and participation of the community in improving the
functioning of primary schools.
The project is being implemented as an externally aided
scheme with reimbursement of 90 % in Phase I and 50 % in Phase II, from SIDA. The project,
with an outlay of around Rs.212 million in Phase I and Rs.490 million in
Phase II, places strong emphasis on vigorous and continuous
in-service training.
The SKP also runs non-formal classes called Prehar
Pathshalas-schools of convenient timings. For girls' education, Angan Pathshalas are being
run in three blocks. The programme at present covers over 150,000 students in 1,785
schools and 3,520 Prehar Pathshalas, involving over 4,271 Shiksha Karmis.
The project is known for its open participative style and
continuous experimentation to achieve its objectives. The approach, strategies and
achievements of the SKP have attracted national and international recognition. The project
is slated for a major expansion with SIDA assistance in the 9th Plan. The total
projections for the 9th Plan are estimated to be Rs. 4260 million.
Lok Jumbish Project
Barely five years old, Lok Jumbish (LJ) has made an
indelible impression in the primary education landscape of Rajasthan. The coverage of the
project has extended to 75 blocks, covering a population of approximately 12 million.
Significantly, it has also achieved a major breakthrough in welding together government
agencies, teachers, NGOs, elected representatives and the people into an interactive group
effort to promote universalisation of primary education.
The seven guiding principles of Lok Jumbish are:
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a process rather than a product approach;
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partnerships;
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decentralised functioning;
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participatory learning;
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integration with the mainstream education system;
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flexibility of management; and
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creating multiple levels of leadership committed to quality
and mission mode.
Special focus has been given to environment building in all
training programmes under LJ. This helps in the development of an understanding about
issues involved in people's mobilisation, use of different media forms and clarity about
the messages to be given to the people.
The first phase of the project was for a period of two
years from 1992-94, with the expenditure shared between SIDA, Government of India and
Government of Rajasthan in the ratio 3:2:1. The second phase stretches up to 1998, with
the sharing modality remaining the same. The allocation for LJP is Rs.1100 million for
Phases I and II and Rs.4000 million for Phase III. A Norwegian grant of Rs. 200 million is
also available.
